What does the processor tire affect. Tires of personal computers

Components inside PC interact with each other in various ways. Most internal components, including processor, cache, memory, expansion cards and storage devices interact with each other with one or more tire (BUSES).

The bus in computers is a channel by which information is transmitted between two or several devices (usually a tire connecting only two devices is called porto. - Port). The bus usually has access points, or a place to which the device can connect to convert itself into part of the bus, and the device on the bus can send information to other devices and receive information from other devices. The concept of the tire is rather common both for the "insides" of the PC and for the outside world. For example, a telephone connection in the house can be read by a bus: the information is transmitted over the wiring in the house and you can connect to the "bus" by setting the phone socket by connecting the phone to it and lifting the phone tube. All telephones on the bus can share (Share) information, i.e. speech.

This material is devoted to the tires of modern RS. Initially, tires and their characteristics are discussed, and then the most common PC in the world is discussed in detail. i / O Tires (INPUT / OUTPUT BUS), also called tires expansion (Expansion Buses).

Tire features and characteristics

RS tires are the main "paths" data on the motherboard. The main one is system tire (System Bus), which connects the processor and the main RAM memory. Previously, this tire was called local, and in modern RS called front tire (FRONT SIDE BUS - FSB). The characteristics of the system tire are determined by the processor; The modern system tire has a 64 bits width and operates at a frequency of 66, 100 or 133 MHz. Signals of such a high frequency create electrical interference and put other problems. Therefore, the frequency must be reduced so that the data reaches expansion cards (Expansion Card), or Adapters (Adapters), and other more remote components.

However, the first RS had only one bus that was common to the processor, RAM memory and I / O components. The first and second generation processors operated with a low synchronization frequency and all system components could maintain such a frequency. In particular, such an architecture made it possible to expand the RAM capacitance using expansion cards.

In 1987, Compaq developers decided to separate the system tire from the I / O bus so that they could work at different speeds. Since then, such a multishing architecture has become an industrial standard. Moreover, modern PCs have several input-output tires.

Shin hierarchy

The RS has a hierarchical organization of various tires. Most modern RS has, at least four tires. The tire hierarchy is explained by the fact that each tire is increasingly moving away from the processor; Each tire is connected to the above level, combining various components of the PC. Each tire is usually slower than the tire above it (for an obvious reason - the processor is the fastest device in the RS):

• Tire of the inner cache: This is the fastest tire that connects the processor and internal L1 cache.
• System bus: This is a second-level system bus that connects the memory subsystem with a chipset and processor. In some systems, the processor and memory tires are the same. This tire until 1998 worked at a speed (synchronization frequency) of 66 MHz, and then it was increased to 100 MHz and even 133 MHz. In Pentium II processors, architecture with double independent bus (Dual Independent Bus - DIB) - the only system tire is replaced with two independent bus. One of them is designed to access the main memory and is called front tire (Frontside Bus), and the second - to access L2 cache and is called rear tire (Backside Bus). The presence of two tires increases the PC performance, since the processor can simultaneously receive data from both tires. In motherboards and fifth generation chipsets, L2-cache is connected to a standard memory bus. Note that the system tire is also called Main tire (Main Bus) tire processor (Processor Bus) memory bus (Memory Bus) and even local tire (Local Bus).
• Local I / O Tire: This high-speed I / O bus is used to connect rapid peripheral memory to memory, chipset and processor. Type of tire use video cards, disk drives and network interfaces. The most common local I / O tires are VESA Local Bus (VLB) and Peripheral Component InterConnect bus (PCI).
• Standard I / O bus: The "deserved" standard I / O bus is connected to the three tires, which is used for slow peripheral devices (mouse, modem, sound cards, etc.), as well as for compatibility with old devices. In almost all modern PCs such a bus is the ISA bus (Industry Standard Architecture - standard industrial architecture).
• Universal sequential tire (Universal Serial Bus - USB), which allows you to connect up to 127 slow peripheral devices using Haba (HUB) or loop connections (daisy-chaning) devices.
• Speed \u200b\u200bSerial Tire IEEE 1394 (FireWire)intended for connecting to PC digital cameras, printers, TVs and other devices that require exceptionally high bandwidth.

Multiple I / O bus connecting different peripherals with the processor, connect to the system bus using bridge (Bridge) implemented in the chipset. The system chipset manages all tires and ensures that each device in the system correctly interacts with each other device.

In the new RS there is an additional "tire", which is specifically designed only for graphic interaction. In fact, this is not a tire, but port - Accelerated Graphics Port (Accelerated Graphics Port - AGP). The difference between the bus and the port is that the bus is usually calculated on the separation of the media by several devices, and the port is intended only for two devices.

As shown earlier, the I / O tires are actually an extension of the system tire. On the motherboard, the system tire ends with a chipset chipset that forms a bridge to an I / O bus. Tires play a crucial role in the exchange of data in the PC. In fact, all PC components, with the exception of the processor, interact with each other and the RAM system memory through various I / O bus, as shown in the figure on the left.

Address and Data Tires

Each tire consists of two different parts: data bus (Data Bus) and Tire address (ADDRESS BUS). Speaking of the tire, most people understand the data bus; On the lines of this tire are transmitted by the data. The address bus is a set of lines whose signals are determined where to transmit or where to receive data.

Of course, there are signal lines for controlling the operation of the bus and signaling of data availability. Sometimes these lines are called bus tire (Control Bus), although often they are not mentioned.

Bus width

The tire is a channel for which "flows" information. The wider bus, the more information can "flow" through the channel. The first ISA bus in IBM PC had 8 bits width; The universal ISA bus used now has a width 16. Other I / O bus, including VLB and PCI, have a 32 bits width. The width of the system tire in the PC with Pentium processors is 64 bits.

The width of the address bus can be determined regardless of the width of the data bus. The width of the address bus shows how many memory cells can be addressed when data transmission. In modern PC, the width of the address bus is 36 bits, which ensures the addressing of the memory capacity of 64 GB.

Speed \u200b\u200b(speed) tires

Tire speed (Bus Speed) Shows how many bits of information can be transmitted for each tire conductor per second. Most of the tires are transmitted one-bit on the synchronization clock, although new tires, such as AGP, can transmit two data bits in synchronization cycle, which doubles performance. In the old ISA bus to transmit one bit, two synchronization cycle requires, which reduces the performance twice.

Bus bandwidth

Width (bits) Speed \u200b\u200b(MHz) Bandwidth (MB / s) 8-bit ISA 16-bit ISA 64-bit PCI 2.1 AGP (x2 mode) AGP (x4 mode)

Bandwidth bandwidth (Bandwidth) is also called throughput (Throughput) and shows a total amount of data that can be transmitted over the bus for this unit of time. The table shows theoretical Passing capacity of modern I / O tires. In fact, the tires do not reach theoretical indicator due to service losses for the execution of teams and other factors. Most tires can operate at different speeds; The following table shows the most typical values.

We will make a remark about the last four lines. Theoretically, the PCI bus can be expanded to 64 bits and a speed of 66 MHz. However, for the reasons for compatibility, almost all PCI tires and device devices are calculated only at 33 MHz and 32 bits. AGP relies on theoretical standard and runs 66 MHz, but retains 32 bits width. AGP has additional X2 and X4 modes that allow the port to transmit data two or four times in the synchronization cycle, which increases the efficient tire speed to 133 or 266 MHz.

Tire Interface

In a multi-tire system, the chipset should provide schemes for combining tires and interacting the device on one bus with a device on another bus. Such schemes are called bridge (Bridge) (Note that the bridge is also called a network device for connecting two differentty networks). The most common PCI-ISA bridge, which is a component of a system chipset for PC with Pentium processors. The PCI bus also has a bridge to the system bus.

Mastering tires

In tires with a large bandwidth, every second of the channel passes a huge amount of information. Usually, the processor is required to manage these gears. In fact, the processor acts as a "mediator" and, as often happens in the real world, it is much more efficient to remove the intermediary and directly perform transmissions. For this, devices that can control the bus and act independently, i.e. transmit data directly to RAM system memory; Such devices are called tires leading (Bus Masters). Theoretically, the processor simultaneously with data transmissions by bus can be performed by another job; In practice, the situation is complicated by several factors. For proper implementation mastering tires (Bus Mastering) requires arbitration of tire query, which is provided with a chipset. Tire mastering is also called "First Party" DMA, since the work is managing the device performing the transmission.

Now tire mastering is implemented on the PCI bus; Added support for hard drives IDE / ATA implementation of tire masting on PCI under certain conditions.

Principle of local tire

The beginning of the 90s is characterized by the transition from text applications to the graphic and increasing popularity of the Windows operating system. And this led to a huge increase in the amount of information that should be transmitted between the processor, memory, video and hard drives. The standard screen monochromatic (black and white) text contains only 4000 bytes of information (2000 for characters and 2000 codes for screen attributes), and the standard 256-color Windows requires more than 300,000 bytes! Moreover, the modern resolution of 1600x1200 at 16 million colors requires 5.8 million bytes of information on the screen!

Software transition from text on schedule meant also an increase in program sizes and increased memory requirements. From the point of view of I / O to handle additional data for the video card and hard drives of huge capacitance, a much big I / O bandwidth is required. With this situation, it was necessary to encounter when the 80486 processor appears, the performance of which was much higher than the previous processors. The ISA bus has ceased to meet the increased requirements and has become a bottleneck in increasing PC performance. The increase in the speed of the processor gives little, if it should expect a slow system bus for data transmission.

The decision was found in the development of a new faster tire, which was supposed to supplement the ISA bus and apply specifically for such high-speed devices as a video card. This tire was to be placed on (or near) a much faster memory bus and work approximately with the external speed of the processor to transmit data much faster than the standard ISA bus. When placing such devices near ("locally"), the processor appeared local tire. The first local bus was VESA Local Bus (VLB), and the modern local bus in most PC is the PERIPHERAL COMPONENT InterConnect bus (PCI).

System tire

System tire (System Bus) connects the processor with the main RAM memory and, possibly, with L2 cache. It is the central bus of the computer and the remaining tires are "branched" from it. The system bus is implemented as a set of conductors on the motherboard and must comply with the specific type of processor. It is the processor that determines the characteristics of the system tire. At the same time, the faster the system bus, the faster the remaining electronic components of the PC should be.

Old CPU Bus width Tire speed 8088 8 bits 4.77 MHz 8086 16 bits 8 MHz 80286-12 16 bits 12 MHz 80386SX-16. 16 bits 16 MHz 80386DX-25. 32 bits 25 MHz

Consider the RS system tires with multiple generation processors. In the processors of the first, second and third generations, the frequency of the system tire was determined by the processor operating frequency. As the processor speed increases, the speed of the system tire increased. At the same time, the address space increased: in 8088/8086 processors, it was 1 MB (20-bit address), in the 80286 processor the address space was increased to 16 MB (24-bit address), and from the processor 80386, the address space is 4 GB (32 -bit address).

Family 80486. Bus width Tire speed 80486SX-25 32 bits 25 MHz 80486DX-33. 32 bits 33 MHz 80486DX2-50 32 bits 25 MHz 80486DX-50. 32 bits 50 MHz 80486DX2-66 32 bits 33 MHz 80486DX4-100 32 bits 40 MHz 5x86-133 32 bits 33 MHz

As can be seen from the table for the fourth-generation processors, the speed of the system tire first corresponded to the operating frequency of the processor. However, technological advances made it possible to increase the frequency of the processor, and the correspondence of the speed of the system tire required an increase in the speed of external components, mainly system memory, which was associated with significant difficulties and cost limits. Therefore, in the 80486DX2-50 processor was first used doubling frequency CLOCK DOUBLING: The processor worked with internal 50 MHz synchronization frequency, and exterior The speed of the system tire was 25 MHz, i.e. Only half of the operating frequency of the processor. This reception significantly improves the performance of the computer, especially due to the presence of an internal L1 cache, which satisfies most processor handlers to system memory. Since multiplication of frequency (Clock Multiplying) has become a standard way to improve computer performance and is used in all modern processors, and the frequency multiplier is adjusted to 8, 10 or more.

Family Pentium. Bus width Tire speed Intel P60 64 bits 60 MHz Intel P100. 64 bits 66 MHz Cyrix 6x86 P133 + 64 bits 55 MHz AMD K5-133 64 bits 66 MHz Intel P150 64 bits 60 MHz Intel P166. 64 bits 66 MHz Cyrix 6x86 P166 + 64 bits 66 MHz Pentium Pro 200. 64 bits 66 MHz Cyrix 6x86 P200 + 64 bits 75 MHz Pentium II. 64 bits 66 MHz

For a long time, the PC system tires with the processors of the fifth generation worked at a speed of 60 MHz and 66 MHz. A significant step forward was to increase the data width to 64 bits and expand the address space to 64 GB (36-bit address).

The speed of the system tire was raised to 100 MHz in 1998 due to the development of the PC100 SDRAM chip. RDRAM memory microcircuits allow you to further increase the speed of the system tire. However, the transition from 66 MHz to 100 MHz has provided a significant impact on processors and motherboards with Socket 7. In the Pentium II modules up to 70-80% of traffic (information transmissions), is carried out inside the new SEC cartridge (Single Edge Cartridge) in which the processor and Both L1 cache cache and L2-cache. This cartridge works with its speed, independent of the speed of the system tire.

CPU Chipset Speed tires CPU velocity Intel Pentium II. 82440BX 82440GX. 100 MHz 350,400,450 MHz AMD K6-2. Via MVP3, Ali Aladdin V. 100 MHz 250,300,400 MHz Intel Pentium II Xeon 82450NX. 100 MHz 450,500 MHz Intel Pentium III i815 i820. 133 MHz 600,667+ MHz AMD Athlon. Via KT133. 200 MHz 600 - 1000 MHz

The I820 and I815 chipsets developed for the Pentium III processor are designed for a 133 MHz system bus. Finally, in the AMD Athlon processor, significant changes were introduced into the architecture and the concept of the system tire turned out to be unnecessary. This processor can work with different RAM types at a maximum frequency of 200 MHz.

Types of I / O Tires

In this section, we will discuss the various I / O tires, and most of it is dedicated to modern tires. The overall view of the use of I / O bus gives the following figure, clearly showing the purpose of various I / O tes of the modern PC.

The following table summarizes the total information about the various I / O tires that are used in modern PC:

Tire	Year	Width	Speed	Max. Pass ability
PC and XT.	1980-82	8 bits	Simultaneous: 4.77-6 MHz	4-6 MB / s
ISA (AT)	1984	16 bits	Simultaneous: 8-10 MHz	8 MB / s
MCA.	1987	32 bits	Asynchronous: 10.33 MHz	40 MB / s
EISA (for servers)	1988	32 bits	Synchronous: Max. 8 MHz	32 MB / s
VLB, for 486	1993	32 bits	Simultaneous: 33-50 MHz	100-160 MB / s
PCI	1993	32/64 bita	Asynchronous: 33 MHz	132 MB / s
USB	1996	Consistent		1.2 MB / s
FireWire (IEEE1394)	1999	Consistent		80 MB / s
USB 2.0	2001	Consistent		12-40 MB / s

Old tires

New modern tire PCI and AGP port "born" from old tires, which can still be found in the PC. Moreover, the oldest Tire of ISA is still used even in the newest RS. Next, we consider several more old RS tires.

Industry Standard Architecture Tire (ISA)

This is the most common and truly standard bus for PC, which is used even in the latest computers despite the fact that it has practically not changed since its expansion up to 16 bits in 1984. Of course, it is now supplemented with faster tires, but "survivors" due to availability A huge database of peripheral equipment designed for this standard. In addition, there are many devices for which the ISA speeds are more than enough, for example for modems. According to some experts to the "dying", the ISA tire will take place at least 5-6 years.

The width and speed of the ISA bus determined by the processors with which she worked in the first PC. The original ISA bus in IBM PC had 8 bits width, corresponding to 8 bits of the external processor data tire 8088, and worked at a frequency of 4.77 MHz, which also corresponds to the processor speed of 8088. In 1984, the IBM AT computer appeared with the 80286 processor and the width of the tire was doubled Up to 16 bits, as in the external data tire of the processor 80286. At the same time, up to 8 MHz tire speed was raised, which also corresponded to the processor speed. Theoretically, the tire throughput is 8 MB / s, but almost it does not exceed 1-2 MB / s.

In modern RS, the ISA bus acts as inner tireused for keyboard, flexible disk, consecutive and parallel ports, and how external expansion tireTo which 16-bit adapters can be connected, such as a sound card.

Subsequently, the AT processors have become faster, and then their data bus has been increased, but now the requirement of compatibility with existing devices caused manufacturers to adhere to the standard and the ISA bus from that time practically did not change. The ISA bus provides sufficient bandwidth for slow devices and probably guarantees compatibility with almost every RS released.

Many extension cards, even modern, are still 8-bit (you can learn about the map connector - 8-bit cards are used only the first part of the ISA connector, and the 16-bit cards use both parts). For these cards, the low bandwidth of the ISA bus does not play roles. However, access to interrupts from IRQ 9 to IRQ 15 is provided through the conductors in the 16-bit part of the tire connectors. That is why most modems cannot be connected to IRQ with large numbers. IRQ lines between ISA devices cannot be divided.

Document THE PC99 SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDEprepared by Intel and Microsoft companies categorically requires the removal of ISA tire slots from motherboards, so you can expect that the days of this "deserved" tire are considered.

MicroChannel Architecture tire (MCA)

This tire has become an IBM attempt to make an ISA tire "more and better." When the 80386DX processor appears in the mid-80s, the IBM has decided to develop a bus that corresponds to such a data width. The MCA bus had a 32-bit width and had several advantages compared to the ISA bus.

The MCA tire had several excellent opportunities, taking into account the fact that it appeared in 1987, i.e. Seven years before the PCI tire appears with similar capabilities. In some respects, Msa Shina is simply ahead of his time:

• 32 Bit width: The tire has a 32-bit width, like the local tires VESA and PCI. Its bandwidth was much higher compared to the ISA bus.
• Tire mastering: The MCA bus effectively supported tire adapters, including the correct bire arbitration.
• The MCA bus automatically configured the adapter cards, so the jumpers became unnecessary. This happened 8 years before Windows 95 has turned PNP technology into a generally accepted for PC.

The MCA tire had huge potential. Unfortunately, IBM adopted two such solutions that did not contribute to the spread of this tire. First, the MES tire was incompatible with the ISA bus, i.e. The ISA cards did not work at all in the PC from the MES bus, and the computer market is very sensitive to the backward compatibility problem. Secondly, IBM decided to make the MSA bus with his property, without selling a license for its application.

These two factors together with a higher cost of systems with a bus of MES led to the obligation of the MSA tire. Since PS / 2 computers are no longer produced, the MSA bus "died" for the RS market, although IBM still uses it in its RISC 6000 UNIX servers. The history of the MES bus is one of the classic examples of how non-technical questions in the world of computers are often dominated by technical.

Bus Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA)

This tire has never become such a standard, which is the ISA bus, and not gained widespread. In fact, she was the answer to Compaq on the MSA tire and led to similar results.

Compaq When developing the EISA bus, avoid two major IBM errors. First, the EISA tire was compatible with the ISA bus and, secondly, it was allowed to use it to all PC manufacturers. In general, the EISA tire had significant technical advantages over the ISA bus, but the market did not take it. The main features of the EISA tire:

• Compatibility with the ISA bus: ISA cards could work in EISA slots.
• Tire width 32 bits: Bus width increased to 32 bits.
• Tire mastering: EISA bus effectively supported tire adapters, including the correct bus arbitration.
• Plug and Play Technology (PNP): EISA bus automatically configured adapter cards similarly to the PNP standard of modern systems.

EISA-based systems are sometimes found in network file servers, and in desktop RS, it does not apply due to higher cost and lack of a wide selection of adapters. Finally, the bandwidth is significantly inferior to the VESA Local Bus and PCI local bus. Almost tire now EISA is close to "dying".

Tire VESA Local Bus (VLB)

The first is quite popular local tire VESA Local Bus (VL-BUS or VLB) appeared in 1992. Abbreviation VESA means Video Electronics Standards Association, and this association was created in the late 80s to solve the problems of video systems in the PC. The main reason for the development of the VLB bus was the improvement of the performance of the RS video system.

The VLB bus is a 32-bit bus that is a direct extension of the processor 486 memory bus. VLB tire slot is a 16-bit ISA slot with added at the end of the third and fourth connectors. The VLB bus typically operates at 33 MHz, although high speed is also possible in some systems. Since it is an extension of the ISA bus, an ISA card can be used in the VLB slot, but it makes sense at the beginning to take ordinary ISA slots and leave a small number of VLB slots for VLB cards, which, of course, do not work in ISA slots. The use of a VLB video card and an I / O controller significantly improves the system performance compared to a system that has only one ISA bus.

Despite the fact that the VLB bus was very popular in the PC with the processor 486, the appearance of the PENTIUM processor and its local Tire PCI in 1994 led to a gradual "obligation" VLB tires. One of the reasons for this was the efforts of Intel to promote the PCI tire, but there were several technical problems associated with the implementation of VLB. First, the tire design is very "tied to the processor 486, and the transition to Pentium caused compatibility issues and other problems. Secondly, the tire itself had technical disadvantages: a small number of cards on the tire (often two or even one), synchronization problems when using multiple cards and the lack of support for mastering tires and Plug and Play technology.

Now the VLB bus is considered outdated and even in the last motherboards with the processor 486, the PCI bus is used, and with PENTIUM processors - only PCI. However, the PC with the VLB bus is inexpensive and sometimes you can still meet them.

PERIPHERAL COMPONENT INTERCONNECT (PCI) tire

The most popular I / O bus interaction of peripheral components PERIPHERAL COMPONENT INTERCONNECT - PCI) was developed by Intel in 1993. It was focused on the fifth and sixth generation systems, but was also applied in the last generation of motherboards with the processor 486.

Like the VESA Local Bus tire, the PCI bus has a 32 bits width and usually operates at 33 MHz. The main advantage of PCI over the VESA Local Bus tire lies in the chipset that runs the bus. The PCI bus is controlled by special schemes in the chipset, and the VLB bus was, mostly, simply extending the processor 486 bus. The PCI bus in this regard is not "tied" to the processor 486 and its chipset provides the right bus control and bus arbitration, allowing PCI to do much more What could VLB bus. The PCI bus is also used outside the PC platform, providing versatility and reducing system development costs.

In modern RS, the PCI bus acts as inner tirewhich connects to the EIDE channel on the motherboard and how external expansion tirewhich has 3-4 expansion slots for PCI adapters.

The PCI bus is connected to the system bus through a special "bridge" (Bridge) and operates at a fixed frequency, regardless of the processor synchronization frequency. It is limited to five expansion slots, but each of them can be replaced by two devices built into the motherboard. The processor can also support several bridge chips. The PCI bus is more strictly specified compared to the VL-BUS bus and provides several additional features. In particular, it supports cards having a supply voltage +3.3 V and 5 V using special keys that do not allow insert a map into an inappropriate slot. Next, the functioning of the PCI tire is considered in more detail.

PCI tire performance

The PCI bus actually has the greatest performance among the total I / O tires in modern RS. This is explained by several factors:

• Batch mode (BURST MODE): The PCI bus can transmit information in packet mode when it is possible to transmit multiple data sets after the initial addressing. This mode is similar to cache packing (Cache Bursting).
• Tire mastering: The PCI bus supports full mastering, which helps increase productivity.
• High bandwidth options: Version 2.1 PCI Tire Specifications Adjusts to 64 bits and 66 MHz, which increases current performance four times. In practice, the 64-bit Tire PCI is not yet implemented in the PC (although it is already applied in some servers) and the speed is now limited to 33 MHz, mainly due to compatibility issues. For a while you will have to be limited to 32 bits and 33 MHz. However, thanks to AGP in a somewhat modified form, higher performance will be implemented.

The PCI bus speed depending on the chipset and motherboard can be installed as synchronous or asynchronous. When synchronous configuration (used in most PC), the PCI bus works with half the speed of the memory bus; Since the memory bus usually works for 50, 60 or 66 MHz, the PCI bus operates at a frequency of 25, 30 or 33 MHz. When asynchronous tuning, the PCI bus speed can be set independently of the speed of the memory bus. This is usually controlled by jumpers on the motherboard or BIOS parameters. "Overclocking) of the System Bus in the PC, which uses the PCI synchronous bus, will cause" acceleration "and PCI peripheral devices, often causing the problems of the unstable operation of the system.

In the initial implementation of the PCI bus worked at 33 MHz, and the subsequent PCI 2.1 specification determined the frequency of 66 MHz, which corresponds to the bandwidth of 266 MB / s. The PCI bus can be configured to the width of data 32 and 64 bits and 32- and 64-bit cards are allowed, as well as separated interrupts, which is convenient in high-performance systems in which IRQ lines are not enough. From mid-1995, all high-speed RS devices interact with each other through the PCI bus. Most often it is used for hard drive controllers and graphic controllers, which are mounted directly on the motherboard or on expansion cards in the PCI bus slots.

PCI bus expansion slots

The PCI bus allows more expansion slots than the VLB bus, without causing technical problems. Most systems with PCI are supported by 3 or 4 PCI slots, and some are significantly larger.

Note: In some systems, not all slots ensure tire mastering. Now it meets less often, but still it is recommended to see the motherboard manual.

The PCI bus allows a greater variety of expansion cards compared to the VLB bus. Most often there are video cards, SCSI host adapters and high-speed network cards. (Hard drives also work on the PCI bus, but they are usually connected directly to the motherboard.) However, we note that the PCI bus does not implement some functions, for example, sequential and parallel ports should remain on the ISA bus. Fortunately, even now the ISA bus remains more than sufficient for these devices.

PCI Tire Interrupts

The PCI bus uses its internal interrupt system to handle requests from cards on the bus. These interrupts are often called "#a", "#B", "#C" and "#d" to avoid confusion with usually numbered system IRQ, although sometimes they are also called from "# 1" to "# 4". These interrupt levels are usually invisible to the user with the exception of the BIOS BIOS settings screen for PCI, where they can be used to control the operation of PCI cards.

These interrupts, if they are required to the cards in slots, are displayed on conventional interrupts, most often on IRQ9 - IRQ12. PCI slots in most systems can be displayed on most of the four conventional IRQs. In systems with more than four PCI slots or having four slots and the USB controller (which uses PCI), two or more PCI devices are separated by IRQ.

Mastering Tire PCI.

Recall that bus mastering is the ability of devices on the PCI tire (different, of course, from the system chipset) to control the bus and directly perform transmissions. The PCI bus has become the first bus tire, which led to the popularity of tire mastering (probably because the operating system and programs were able to use its advantages).

The PCI bus supports complete tire mastering and provides tire arbitration tools through a system chipset. The PCI design allows simultaneous mastering bus of several devices, and the arbitration scheme ensures that no device on the bus (including processor!) Does not block any other device. However, it is allowed to use the total bandwidth of the tire, if other devices do not pass anything. In other words, the PCI bus acts as a tiny local network inside a computer, in which several devices can interact with each other, sharing the communication channel, and which controls the chipset.

Plug and Play Technology for PCI Tire

The PCI bus is part of the Plug and Play (PNP) standard developed by Intel, Microsoft and many others. PCI bus systems first popularized PNP application. The PCI chipset circuits control the identification of maps and together with the operating system and BIOS automatically produce resource allocation for compatible cards.

The PCI bus is constantly improving and developing is managed by the PCI Special Interest Group, which includes Intel, IBM, Apple, etc. The result of these developments has increased tire frequency up to 66 MHz and expanding data up to 64 bits. However, alternative options are created, such as an accelerated graphic port (AGP) and a high-speed serial FireWire tire (IEEE 1394). In fact, AGP is a PCI bus 66 MHz (version 2.1), which introduced some improvements focused on graphic systems.

Another initiative is a tire PCI-X.Also called "Project One" and "Future I / O". IBM, Mylex, 3Com, Adaptec, Hewlett-Packard and Compaq want to develop a special high-speed PCI bus version. This tire will have 1 GB / s bandwidth (64 bits, 133 MHz). Intel and Dell Computer are not involved in this project.

Dell Computer, Hitachi, Nec, Siemens, Sun Microsystems and Intel in response to Project One made a Next-Generation I / O bus development initiative ( NGIO.) Focused on the new I / O architecture for servers.

In August 1999, seven leading companies (COMPAQ, Dell, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, Sun Microsystems) announced their intention to combine the best ideas of Future I / O and Next Generation I / O. A new open I / O architecture for servers must provide bandwidth up to 6 GB / s. It is expected that the new NGIO standard will be adopted at the end of 2001.

Accelerated graphic port

The need to increase bandwidth between the processor and the video system first led to the development of a local I / O bus, starting with VESA Local Bus and ending with a modern PCI bus. This trend continues, and the requirement of increased bandwidth for video does not even satisfy the PCI bus with its standard bandwidth of 132 MB / s. Three-dimensional graphics (3D Graphics) allows you to simulate virtual and real worlds on the screen with the smallest items. Displaying textures and hiding objects require huge amounts of data and a video card must have quick access to these data to maintain a high frequency of regeneration.

Traffic on the PCI bus becomes very tense in modern RS, when video, hard drives and other peripheral devices compete with each other by the only I / O bandwidth. To prevent PCI bus saturation video information, Intel has developed a new interface specifically for the video system, which is called accelerated graphic port ACCELATED Graphics Port - AGP).

The AGP port is designed in response to the requirement of increasingly productivity for the video. As the programs and computers such as three-dimensional acceleration and playback of video films (Full-Motion Video Playback), the processor and video chipset must process more and more information. In such applications, the PCI bus has reached its limit, all the more so that it also uses hard drives and other peripheral devices.

In addition, more and more video memory is required. For three-dimensional graphics, you need more memory and not only for the screen image, but also for the production of calculations. Traditionally, this problem is solved by placing more and more memory on the video card, but there are two problems:

• Cost: Video memory more expensive RAM memory.
• Limited capacity: The memory capacity on the video card is limited: if you place 6 MB on the map and 4 MB is required for the frame buffer, then only 2 MB remains for processing. It is not easy to expand this memory and cannot be used for something else if the video processing is not needed.

AGP solves these problems allowing the video processor to access the main system memory for the production of calculations. This technique is much more efficient, since this memory can be dynamically divided between the system processor and the video processor, depending on the system needs.

The idea of \u200b\u200bimplementing AGP is quite simple: Create a fast specialized interface between a video chipset and a system processor. The interface is implemented only between these two devices, which provides three main advantages: it is easier to implement the port, it is easier to increase the speed of AGP and can be entered into an interface specific to video improvements. AGP chipset acts as an intermediary between the processor, L2-cache Pentium II, system memory, video card and PCI bus, implementing the so-called quad port (Quad Port).

AGP is considered a port, not a tire, as it combines only two devices (processor and video card) and does not allow expansion. One of the main advantages of AGP is that it isolates the video system from the rest of the PC components, excluding competition for the bandwidth. Since the video card is removed from the PCI bus, the remaining devices can work faster. For AGP on the motherboard there is a special socket, which is similar to the PCI bus socket, but is placed elsewhere. The following figure from above shows two ISA tire sockets (black), then two PCI tire sockets (white) and ADP socket (brown).

AGP appeared at the end of 1997 and its first supported the 440LX Pentium II chipset. Next year, AGP chipsets of other companies appeared. For details on AGP see site http://developer.intel.com/technology/agp/.

AGP interface

The AGP interface in many respects is similar to the PCI bus. The slot itself has the same physical shapes and sizes, but shifted from the edge of the motherboard further than the PCI slots. The AGP specification is actually based on the PCI 2.1 specification, which allows 66 MHz speed, but this speed is not implemented in the PC. AGP motherboards have one expansion slot for AGP video card and one PCI slot is less, and the rest are similar to PCI motherboards.

Width, speed and bandwidth

The AGP bus has a 32-bit width, like the PCI bus, but instead of working with half the speed of the memory bus, as PCI does, it works at full speed. For example, on the standard Pentium II motherboard, the AGP bus runs 66 MHz instead of 33 MHz PCI bus. This immediately doubles the port bandwidth - instead of a limit of 132 MB / s for the PCI, the AGP port has a low-speed 2-mb / s. In addition, it does not share the strip with other PCI bus devices.

In addition to doubling the speed of the tire in AGP, mode is defined 2xwhich uses special signals that allow you to transfer multiple data through the port at the same synchronization frequency. In this mode, the information is transmitted by the increasing and falling fronts of the synchronization signal. If the PCI bus transfers only one front data, AGP transmits data on both fronts. As a result, the performance is still doubled and theoretically reaches 528 MB / s. It is also planned to implement mode 4x.in which there are four transmissions in each synchronization cycle, which will increase the performance up to 1056 MB / s.

Of course, all this is impressive for the video card, the bandwidth of 1 GB / s is very good, but one problem arises: in modern PC there are several tires. Recall that in the processors of the Pentium class data width of 64 bits and it runs 66 MHz, which provides the theoretical bandwidth of 524 MB / s, so the band in 1 GB / s does not give a significant gain, if not to increase the speed of the data bus over 66 MHz . In the new motherboards, the speed of the system tire is increased to 100 MHz, which increases throughput up to 800 MB / s, but this is not enough to meet the transmission of the mode 4x..

In addition, the processor should access the system memory, and not just a video system. If the entire system strip is 524 MB / s busy video through AGP, what remains to do the processor? In this case, the transition to the system speed of 100 MHz will give a certain win.

AGP port video conveyorization

One of the advantages of AGP is the ability to conize data requests. Conveyorization was first used in modern processors as a way to improve productivity due to overlapping consecutive fragments of tasks. Thanks to AGP, a video chipset can use a similar reception when requesting information from memory, which significantly improves performance.

AGP access to system memory

The most important feature of AGP is the ability to divide the basic system memory with a video chipset. This provides a video system access to greater memory for the implementation of three-dimensional graphics and other processing, without requiring a large video memory on the video card. The memory on the video card is divided between the frame buffer (Frame Buffer) and other applications. Since the frame buffer requires a high-speed and expensive memory, such as VRAM, in most cards all Memory is performed on the VRAM, although this is required for memory areas except the frame buffer.

Note that AGP not Refers to a unified memory architecture (UNIFIED Memory Architecture - UMA). In this architecture all The video card memory, including the frame buffer, is taken from the main system memory. In AGP, the frame buffer remains on the video card, where it is located. The frame buffer is the most important component of the video memory and requires the highest performance, therefore it is more expedient to leave it on the video card and use VRAM for it.

AGP allows the video processor to access the system memory to solve other tasks requiring memory, such as texturing and other three-dimensional graphics operations. This memory is not so critical as a frame buffer, which allows you to reduce the video card by reducing the VRAM memory capacity. Reference to system memory is called direct execution from memory Direct Memory Execute - Dime). Special device called graphic Aperture Transaction Table (Graphics Aperture Remapping Table - Gart), operates with RAM addresses in such a way that they can be distributed in system memory with small blocks, and not one large section, and provides their video card as part of the video memory. A visual view of the AGP functions gives the following drawing:

Requirements AGP.

To use in the AGP system, you must perform several requirements:

• The presence of AGP video card: This requirement is quite obvious.
• The presence of motherboard with the AGP chipset: Of course, the chipset on the motherboard must support AGP.
• Operating system support: The operating system must support the new interface using its internal drivers and procedures.
• Driver support: Of course, the video card requires special drivers to support AGP and use its special features, such as mode 3X..

New serial tires

For 20 years, many peripheral devices have been connected to the same parallel and sequential ports that appeared in the first PC, and with the exception of the Plug and Play standard "I / O technology" has changed little from 1081. However, by the end of the 90s of the last century, users even stronger feel the limitations of standard parallel and serial ports:

• Bandwidth: Serial ports have the maximum bandwidth 115.2 Kb / s, and parallel ports (depending on the type) of about 500 kb / s. However, for devices such as digital video cameras, a significantly higher bandwidth is required.
• Easy use: Connect devices to the old ports is very uncomfortable, especially through the transition connectors of parallel ports. In addition, all ports are located behind the PC.
• Hardware resources: For each port requires its IRQ line. The RS has only 16 IRQ lines, most of which are already occupied. Some PCs for connecting new devices have only five IRQ lines.
• Limited number of ports: Many PCs have two consecutive Som ports and one parallel LPT port. It is allowed to add more ports but by using valuable IRQ lines.

In recent years, I / O technology has become one of the most dynamic areas of the development of desktop RS and two developed data transmission standards strongly changed the ways to connect peripheral devices and raised the concept of Plug and Play to a new height. Thanks to the new standards, any user will be able to connect to the PC almost unlimited multiple devices literally in a few seconds without having special technical knowledge.

Universal sequential tire

Developed by COMPAQ, Digital, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC and Northern Telecom universal sequential tire Universal Serial Bus - USB provides a new connector for connecting all common I / O devices, eliminating a variety of modern ports and connectors.

USB bus allows connecting up to 127 devices using purchase compound (Daisy-chaning) or use USB-huba (USB HUB). Hub himself, or ConcentratorIt has several sockets and inserted into a PC or other device. Seven peripheral devices can be connected to each USB hub. Among them, there may be a second hub to which one more seven peripheral devices can be connected, etc. Together with the data signals, the USB bus transmits and the supply voltage is +5 V, so small devices, such as manual scanners, may not have their own power supply.

The devices are connected directly to a 4-pin socket (socket) on a PC or a hub in the form of a rectangular socket of type A. All cables that are constantly connected to the device have a plug of type A. Devices that use a separate cable, have a square coat of type B, and The cable that connects them has a plug of type A or type B.

The USB bus removes the limitations of the serial ports on the UART database. It works at a speed of 12 MB / s, which corresponds to network technologies Ethernet and TOKEN Ring and provides sufficient bandwidth for all modern peripheral devices. For example, the bandwidth of the USB bus is sufficient to support devices such as CD-ROM external drives and ribbon drives, as well as ISDN interfaces of regular phones. It is also sufficient to transmit digital audio signals directly in the speakers equipped with a digital analog converter, which eliminates the need to have a sound card. However, the USB bus is not intended to replace the network. To obtain an acceptable low cost, the distance between devices is limited to 5 m. For slow devices type of keyboard and mouse, you can set the data rate of 1.5 MB / s, saving bandwidth for faster devices.

The USB bus fully supports Plug and Play technology. It eliminates the need to install expansion cards inside PC and subsequent reconfiguration of the system. The bus allows you to connect, configure, use and, if necessary, disconnect the peripheral devices at a time when the PC and other devices work. You do not need to install drivers, select sequential and parallel ports, as well as define IRQ, DMA channels and I / O addresses. All this is achieved by controlling the peripheral devices using the host controller on the motherboard or on the PCI map. The host controller and subordinate controllers in the hubs are controlled by peripheral devices, reducing the load on the processor and increasing the overall performance of the system. The host controller itself manages system software as part of the operating system.

The data is transmitted by a bidirectional channel that control the host controller and subordinate hub controllers. Superior tire mastering allows you to constantly reserve for specific peripherals part of the total bandwidth; This method is called isochronous data transmission (ISOCHRONOUS DATA TRANSFER). The USB bus interface contains two main modules: serial interface machine (Serial Interface Engine - Sie), which is responsible for the protocol of the tire, and root hub (Root Hub) used to extend the number of USB bus ports.

USB bus highlights each port 500 mA. Due to this, low-power devices that usually require a separate AC transducer (AC Adapter), you can feed via cable - USB allows the PC to automatically determine the required power and deliver it to the device. Hubs allow full power from the USB tire (BUS Powered), but can have their own AC converter. Hubs with private food providing 500 mA per port provide maximum flexibility for future devices. Hubes with port switching isolate all ports from each other, so one "shortened" does not violate the work of others.

The USB bus promises the creation of a PC with a single USB port instead of modern four or five different connectors. One large powerful device can be connected to it, such as a monitor or printer that will act as a hub, providing connecting other smaller devices, such as mouse, keyboard, modem, scanner, digital chamber, etc. However, this will require the development of special device drivers. However, this configuration of the PC has disadvantages. Some experts believe that the USB architecture is rather complicated, and the need to support many different peripheral devices requires the development of a whole set of protocols. Others believe that the hub principle simply displays the cost and complexity from the system unit to the keyboard or monitor. But the main obstacle to USB's success is the IEEE 1394 FireWire standard.

IEEE 1394 Firewire bus

This high-speed peripheral tire standard is designed by Apple Computer, Texas Instruments and Sony. It was developed as a USB bus complement, and not as an alternative to it, since both tires can be used in one system, similar to modern parallel and serial ports. However, large manufacturers of digital cameras and printers are interested in the IEEE 1394 bus more than in the USB bus, because for digital cameras, the socket 1394 is best suited, and not a USB port.

The IEEE 1394 bus (commonly called FireWire - the "fiery wire") is largely similar to the USB bus, also being a serial tire with a hot substitution, but much faster. In IEEE 1394 there are two levels of the interface: one for the tire on the computer's motherboard and the second for the point-to-point interface between the peripheral device and the computer over the serial cable. A simple bridge combines these two levels. The bus interface supports data transfer rates at 12.5, 25 or 50 MB / s, and the cable interface is 100, 200 and 400 MB / s, which is much larger than the speed of the USB bus - 1.5 MB / s or 12 MB / s. The 1394B specification determines other ways of encoding and transmitting data, which allows you to increase the speed of up to 800 MB / s, 1.6 GB / s and more. Such high speed allows you to apply IEEE 1394 to connect to PC of digital cameras, printers, televisions, network cards and external storage devices.

The IEEE 1394 cable connectors are made so that the electrical contacts are inside the connector body, which prevents the use of electrical shock of the user and contamination of the contacts by the user's hands. These small and convenient connectors are similar to the Nintendo Gameboy gaming connector, which showed excellent durability. In addition, these connectors can be inserted blindly from behind the PC. No terminators are required (Terminators - Terminators) and manual installation of identifiers.

The IEEE 1394 bus is designed for a 6-wire cable up to 4.5 m long, which contains two pairs of conductors for data transmission and one pair to power the device. Each signal pair is shielded and the entire cable is also shielded. The cable allows voltage from 8 V to 400 V and current to 1.5 A and saves the physical continuity of the device when the device is turned off or defective (which is very important for the serial topology). The cable provides power to the devices connected to the bus. As the standard improves, the tire is expected to provide long distances without repeaters and even greater bandwidth.

The basis of any IEEE 1394 compound serves as a physical layer and communication level chip, and two chips are needed for the device. The physical interface (PHY) of one device is connected to the phy of another device. It contains the schemes necessary to perform the functions of arbitration and initialization. The communication interface connects PHY, as well as internal device circuits. It transmits and accepts IEEE 1394 packets and supports asynchronous or isochronous data transmission. The ability to support asynchronous and isochronous formats in the same interface allows you to work on a non-critical bus tire for applications, such as scanners or printers, as well as real-time applications, such as video and sound. All physical-level chips use the same technology, and the communication level chips are specific for each device. This approach allows the IEEE 1394 bus to act as a "node" system (Peer-Peer), in contrast to the client-server approach in the USB bus. As a result, the IEEE 1394 system does not require a service host, nor PC.

Asynchronous transmission is a conventional data transmission between computers and peripheral devices. Here, the data is transmitted in one direction and are accompanied by a subsequent confirmation of the source. In asynchronous data transmission, the emphasis is made on delivery, and not to productivity. Data transfer is guaranteed and reconnaissance (Retries). Isochronous data transmission provides a stream of data at a predetermined speed, so the application can process them with temporary ratios. This is especially important for multimedia data critical when delivery is exactly in time (Just-in-Time Delivery) eliminates the need for expensive buffering. Isochronous data transmission operates on the basis of a wide broadcast (Broadcast), when one or more devices can "listen" (LISTEN) transmitted data. By the IEEE 1394 bus, you can simultaneously transmit several channels (up to 63) of isochrona data. Since isochronous transmissions can occupy a maximum of 80% of the bus bandwidth, there is a sufficient bandwidth and for additional asynchronous transmissions.

Scalable IEEE 1394 tire architecture and flexible topology make it ideal for connecting high-speed devices: from computers and hard drives to digital audio and video equipment. Devices can be connected in the form of a loop or tree topology. Figure On The left shows two separate working areas connected by the IEEE Tire Bridge 1394. The working area # 1 consists of a camcorder, PC and VCR, which are all connected via IEEE 1394. PC is also connected to a physically remote printer through a repeater 1394, which increases the distance between devices, Enhance tire signals. The IEEE 1394 bus is allowed to 16 "jumps" (HOPS) between any two devices. Splitter (Splitter) 1394 is used between the bridge and the printer to provide another port for connecting the IEEE 1394 bus bridge. Motors provide for users a greater flexibility of the topology.

The # 2 workspace contains on the 1394 bus segment only RS and printer, as well as a connection with the bus bridge. Bridge isolates data traffic inside each workspace. The IEEE 1394 bus bridges allow you to transmit selected data from one bus segment to another. Therefore, PC # 2 can request images from a video recorder in the working area # 1. Since the tire cable transmits and power the PHY signal interface is always with power and data is transmitted even if PC # 1 is turned off.

Each IEEE 1394 bus segment allows connecting to 63 devices. Now each device may be up to 4.5 m; Large distances are possible both with repeaters, and without them. Enhancements of cables will allow you to cut devices over long distances. With the help of bridges, you can combine more than 1000 segments, which ensures significant potential for expansion. Another advantage consists in the ability to perform transactions with different speeds by one media for the device. For example, some devices can operate at a speed of 100 MB / s, and others - with a speed of 200 MB / s and 400 MB / s. It is allowed hot replacement (connection or disabling devices) on the bus even when the tire is fully running. Automatically recognize changes in the topology of the tire. This makes unnecessary address switches and other user interventions for tire reconfiguration.

Thanks to the technology of transferring packets, the IEEE 1394 bus can be organized as if the memory space is distributed between devices, or as if the devices are in the slots on the motherboard. The address of the device consists of 64 bits, and 10 bits are discharged for network identifier, 6 bits for the node identifier and 48 bits for memory addresses. As a result, you can add 1023 networks of 63 nodes, each has a memory of 281 TB. Memory addressing, not channels, considers resources by registers or memory to which you can contact the processor-memory transaction. All this provides a simple network organization; For example, a digital camera can easily transfer images directly to a digital printer without an intermediary. The IEEE 1394 bus shows that RS loses its dominant role to combine the medium and can be considered a very intelligent node.

The need to use two chips instead of one makes peripheral devices for the IEEE 1394 bus more expensive compared to devices for SCSI, IDE or USB, so it is not suitable for slow devices. However, its advantages for high-speed applications, such as digital video transfers, turns the IEEE 1394 bus to the main interface for consumer electronics.

Despite the advantages of the IEEE 1394 tires and the appearance of motherboards with embedded controllers of this tire in 2000, the future success of FireWire is not guaranteed. The appearance of the USB 2.0 specification has complicated the situation.

USB 2.0 specification

In the development of this specification focused on supporting high-speed peripheral devices, COMPAQ, Hewlett-Packard, Intel, Lucentt-Packard, Intel, Lucentt-Microsoft, Nec and Philips took part. In February 1999, it was announced an increase in existing productivity at 10 to 20 times, and in September 1999, according to the results of engineering research, the estimates were increased to 30 - 40 times compared with USB 1.1. There were concerns that with such a USB tire performance forever "bury" the IEEE 1394 tire. However, in general, these two tires are focused on various applications. The purpose of USB 2.0 is to provide support for all modern and future popular PC peripheral devices, and the IEEE 1394 bus is focused on connecting household audio and video devices, such as digital video recorders, DVDs and digital TVs.

According to USB 2.0, bandwidth rises from 12 MB / s to 360-480 MB / s. The USB 2.0 bus is expected to be compatible with USB 1.1, which will provide users with a painless transition to a new bus. For it, new high-speed peripheral devices will be developed, which will expand the range of PC applications. Speed \u200b\u200b12 MB / s is quite enough for devices such as phones, digital cameras, keyboard, mouse, digital joysticks, ribbon drives, drives on a flexible disk, digital speakers, scanners and printers. The increased bandwidth USB 2.0 will expand the functionality of the peripheral devices, providing support for high-resolution cameras for video conferencing, as well as high-speed scanners and next-generation printers.

Existing USB peripheral devices will work without changes in the USB 2.0 bus system. Such devices like a keyboard and mouse requires an increased USB 2.0 bandwidth and they will work as USB 1.1 devices. The increased bandwidth USB 2.0 will expand the range of peripheral devices that can be connected to the PC, and will also allow a greater number of USB devices to divide the existing bus bandwidth up to the architectural limits of the USB bus. Backup compatibility USB 2.0 with USB 1.1 may become a decisive advantage in the fight against the IEEE 1394 bus per interface of consumer appliances.

Standard DeviceBay.

DeviceBay. It is a new standard that is designed following the IEEE 1394 and USB tire standards. These tires allow connecting and disable devices "on the fly", i.e. During the operation of the PC. Such opportunity hot replace (Hot Swap, Hot Plug) demanded a new special connection between devices and the response to this requirement was the DeviceBay standard. It standardizes the compartments in which you can insert hard drives, CD-ROM drives and other devices. The mounting frame is installed without tools and during the operation of the PC. If the DeviceBay standard is widely distributed, it will end with flat cables inside the PC body. The entire PC can be issued as a modular design, in which all modules are connected to USB or FireWire bus as DeviceBay devices. In this case, the device can be freely moved between PC and other home appliances.

The DeviceBay standard is designed to connect such devices such as ZIP drives, CD-ROM drives, ribbon drives, modems, hard drives, PC card readers, etc.

The core of the processor is determined by the following characteristics:

• technological process;
• volume of internal cache L1 and L2;
• voltage;
• heat transfer.

Before buying a central processor, you must make sure that your chosen motherboard will be able to work with it.

It is noteworthy that one line of processors may contain a CPU equipped with different nuclei. For example, in the Intel Core I5 \u200b\u200bline, there are processors with nuclei Lynnfield, Clarkdale, Arrandale and Sandy Bridge.

What is the data tire frequency?

Indicator Tire frequencies data It is also indicated by Front Side Bus (or abbreviated FSB.) .

Data bus - This is a set of signal lines intended for data transmission in and of processor.

Tire frequency - This is the clock frequency with which data is exchanged between the processor and the system tire.

It should be noted that processors Apply QUAD PUMPING technology. It makes it possible to transmit 4 data blocks for one clock. The effective frequency of the tire, while increases in four. It should be remembered that for the above-marked processors, in the "Tire frequency" column indicates an increased 4 times indicator.

AMD processors Athlon 64.and Opteron. Apply Hypertransport technology, which allows the processor and RAM to carry out effective interaction. This system significantly improves overall performance.

What is the processor clock frequency?

Processor clock frequency - This is the number of processor operations per second. Under operations, in this case, the tacts are implied. The clock frequency indicator is proportional to the tire frequency (FSB).

Usually, the higher the clock frequency, the higher the performance. However, this rule works only for models of processors belonging to one line. Why? In addition to the performance of the processor, in addition to the frequency, such parameters are also influenced as:

• second-level cache size (L2);
• the presence and frequency of the third level cache (L3);
• presence of special instructions etc...

CPU clock frequency range: from 900 to 4200 MHz.

What is techprocess?

TechProcess - This is the scale of technology that determines the dimensions of the semiconductor elements constituting the database of the internal circuits of the processor. Circuits form connected transistors.

Proportional reduction in transistor dimensions, as modern technologies develop, leads to improved processor characteristics. For example, the Willamette kernel, made according to the process of 0.18 microns, possesses 42 million transistors; The prescott core with a technical process of 0.09 microns, has already 125 million transistors.

What is the magnitude of the processor heat dissipation?

Heat out - This is an indicator of the reserved power cooling system to ensure the normal functioning of the processor. The higher the value of this parameter, the stronger the processor is heated during its work.

This indicator is extremely important to consider in the event of an overestimation of the frequency of the central processor. A processor with low heat generation is cooled faster, and, accordingly, it is possible to overclock it is stronger.

It should also be borne in mind that processor manufacturers measure the heat dissipation indicator in different ways. Therefore, the comparison on this characteristic is appropriate only within the framework of the same manufacturer.

The heat generation range of the processor: from 10 to 165 W.

Support technology Virtualization Technology

Virtualization Technology. - Technology that allows one-time operation of several operating systems on one PC.

So, thanks to virtualization technology, one computer system can function as multiple virtual.

Support SSE4 technology

SSE4. - Technology that includes a package consisting of 54 new teams aimed at improving processor performance indicators during the implementation of various resource-intensive tasks.

Support SSE3 technology

SSE3. - Technology that includes a package consisting of 13 new teams. Their introduction to new generation is aimed at improving processor performance indicators in terms of data streaming operations.

Support SSE2 technology

SSE2 - technology that includes a package of commands that complement the technologies of its "predecessors": SSE and MMX. It is the development of Intel Corporation. The commands included in the set allow you to achieve a significant productivity gain in applications optimized for SSE2. This technology is supported by almost all modern processor models.

NX BIT technology support

NX BIT. - Technology capable of preventing the implementation and execution of the malicious code of some viruses.

Supported by the Windows XP SP2 operating system, as well as all 64-bit OS.

HT Technology Support (Hyper-Threading)

Hyper-Threading is a technology that gives the processor processor to process two streams of commands in parallel, which significantly improves the efficiency of certain resource-intensive applications associated with multitasking (editing audio and video, 3D modeling, etc.). However, in some applications, the use of this technology can reverse effect. Thus, Hyper-Threading technology has an optional character, and if necessary, the user can turn it off at any time. The author of the development is Intel.

AMD64 / EM64T technology support

Processors built on 64-bit architecture can work with 32-bit applications, and with 64-bit, and, with absolutely the same efficiency.

Examples of Lines X-64 processors: AMD Athlon 64, AMD Opteron, Core 2 Duo, Intel Xeon 64 and others.

The minimum amount of RAM for processors supporting 64-bit addressing is 4 GB. Such parameters are not available for traditional 32-bit processors. To activate the operation of 64-bit processors, it is necessary that the operating system is adapted to them, that is, also had an x64 architecture.

Names for implementing 64-bit extensions in processors:

• Intel - EM64T..

3DNow technology support!

3DNow! - Technology containing a package consisting of 21 additional commands for multimedia processing. The main purpose of this technology is to improve the processing process of multimedia applications.

Technology 3DNow! Implemented exclusively in AMD processors.

What is the volume of cache L3?

Under the volume of the L3 cache implies third-level cache.

Equipping the high-speed system bus, L3 cache forms a high-speed channel to exchange data with system memory.

Usually, L3 cache is equipped with only top processors and server systems. For example, such rules of processors like AMD Opteron, AMD Phenom, AMD Phenom II, Intel Core i3, Intel Core i5, Intel Core i7, Intel Xeon.

L3 Cache Volume Range: from 0 to 30720 kb.

What is the volume of cache L2?

Under the volume of Cache L2, the second-level cache memory is meant.

Second Level Cache It is a high-speed memory unit that performs similar L1 function cache. This unit has a lower speed, and also has a greater volume.

If the user needs a processor to perform resource-intensive tasks, you should select a model with a large volume of L2 cache.

In models of processors with several cores, the total amount of second-level cache is indicated.

L2 Cache Volume Range: from 128 to 16384 Kb.

What is the volume of cache L1?

Under the volume of cache L1, the first-level cache memory is meant.

First-level cache It is a high-speed block, located directly on the core of the processor. This block creates a copy of the data extracted from the RAM. Treatment of data from the cache is done at times faster than data processing from RAM.

Cash memory makes it possible to increase processor performance due to higher data processing speed. The first level cache is calculated by kilobytes, it is quite small. As a rule, the "senior" processor models are equipped with L1 larger cache.

In models of processors possessing several cores, the amount of the first level cache is always indicated for one nucleus.

Range of Cache L1: 8 to 128 kb.

Nominal power supply voltage processor

This parameter denotes the voltage required by the processor for its operation. They are characterized by the power consumption of the processor. This parameter is especially important to consider when choosing a processor for a mobile and non-stationary system.

Unit of measurement - volts.

Core voltage range: from 0.45 to 1.75 V.

Maximum operating temperature

This is an indicator of the maximum permissible temperature of the surface of the processor at which it is possible. The surface temperature depends on the workload of the processor, as well as from the quality of the heat sink.

• Under normal cooling, the processor temperature is in the range of 25-40 ° C (idle mode);
• With a large load, the temperature can reach 60-70 ° C.

High operating temperature processors require the installation of powerful cooling systems.

The range of maximum operating temperature of the processor: from 54.8 to 105.0 ° C.

What is a processor line?

Each processor refers to a specific model range or ruler. Within one line, processors can seriously differ from each other by a number of characteristics. Each manufacturer has a line of low-cost processors. Let's say, Intel is Celeron. and Core Solo; AMD has SEMPRON..

The processors of budget lines, unlike more expensive "counterparts", do not have some functions, and their parameters - have smaller values. Thus, in low-cost processors there may be significantly reduced cache memory, moreover, it may not be completely absent.

Budget rules of processors are suitable for office computers that do not involve working with large loads and large-scale tasks. More resource-intensive tasks (video / audio processing) require the installation of "senior" lines. For instance, Core 2 Duo, Core 2 Quad, Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, Phenom X3, Phenom X4, Phenom II X4, Phenom II x6, etc.

Server motherboards, usually use specialized processor line: Opteron., Xeon. And they are similar.

What is the processor multiplication coefficient?

Based on the processor multiplication coefficient, the final clock frequency of its operation is calculated.

Processor clock frequency \u003d Tire frequency (FSB) * multiplication coefficient.

For example, the frequency of the tire (FSB) is 533 MHz, and the multiplication coefficient is 4.5. So, 533 * 4.5 \u003d 2398.5 MHz. We get the clock frequency of the processor.

In most modern processors, this parameter is blocked at the kernel level, it is not subject to change.

It should also be noted that processors of the type Intel Pentium 4, Pentium M, Pentium D, Pentium EE, Xeon, Core and Core 2 Apply technology Quad Pumping. (Transfer of 4 data blocks per tact). In this case, the effective frequency of the tire increases, respectively, 4 times. In the "Tire Frequency" field, in the case of the above-reduced processors, the bus frequency is enlarged four times. To obtain an indicator of the physical frequency of the tire, it is necessary to share the effective frequency by 4.

Range of multiplication ratio: from 6.0 to 37.0.

Number of cores in the processor

Modern processor production technologies allow you to place several nuclei in one case. The more nuclei has a processor, the higher its performance. For example, 2-nuclear processors are used in the Core 2 Duo series, and the Core 2 Quad line is 4-nuclear.

Range of number of cores in the processor: from 1 to 16.

What is Socket (Socket)?

Each motherboard is equipped with a specific type connector designed to install the processor. This connector is called socket. Usually, the type of socket is determined by the number of legs, as well as the manufacturer of the processor. Various sockets correspond to different types of processors.

Currently, processor manufacturers apply the following types of sockets:

Intel

• LGA1155;
• LGA2011.

AMD.

• AM3 +;
• FM1.

The processor temperature is gradually growing with time. What measures are most effective to reduce the processor temperature?

Depending on the operating conditions of technology, the situation often arises that the radiators and are clogged with dust, mud, the thermal interface changes its properties of thermal conductivity, fastening the radiator weaken, sometimes not evenly.

In this case, it is necessary, when suspected overheating, remove the cooling system, clean the radiators, fix the fasteners, replace the thermal wagon. Also reduce the temperature in the case, change the fan of the processor cooler to more powerful or, if the design allows you to change the cooler, add a cooler to Fool and \\ or blowing out.

How to determine what thermal protection in action?

There are two ways. The first is software. We run Tat (Intel Thermal Analysis Tool) for the Core, RMClock family processors for all the rest and follow the messages in TAT and the schedule in the second. As soon as thermal protection works, TAT will give a warning, and the CPU Throttle will appear in the RMClock monitoring.

The second way is mediated. It is based on the fact that the inclusion of thermal protection, especially
trehottling is necessarily accompanied by a strong drop in processor performance.

The temperature of the first nucleus in the X-nuclear processor is higher by several ° C, compared with the second. How to explain it?

This is normal. The kernel used firstly, is typically larger, so
and heats up respectively.

Many users are wondering what is the most influence on computer performance?

It turns out that it is impossible to give a unambiguous answer to this question. The computer is a set of subsystems (memory, computing, graphic, storage), interacting with each other through the motherboard and device drivers. If the subsystems are incorrectly adjusting, they do not provide maximum performance that could be issued.

Comprehensive performance consists of software and hardware settings and features.
We list them.

Hardware performance factors:

1. Number of processor cores - 1, 2, 3 or 4
2. Processor frequency and system tire frequency (FSB) processor - 533, 667, 800, 1066, 1333 or 1600 MHz
3. Volume and amount of processor cache (CPU) - 256, 512 KB; 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12 MB.
4. CPU and Motherboard System Tire Frequency Coincidence
5. RAM frequency (RAM) and frequency of the motherboard memory tire - DDR2-667, 800, 1066
6. The amount of RAM - 512 and more MB
7. Used on the Chipset Motherboard (Intel, Via, Sis, Nvidia, ATI / AMD)
8. Used graphic subsystem - built into the motherboard or discrete (external video card with its video memory and graphics processor)
9. Winches interface type (HDD) - parallel IDE or successive SATA and SATA-2
10. Cache Winchester - 8, 16 or 32 MB.

An increase in the listed technical characteristics always increases performance.

Nuclei

At the moment, most of the manufactured processors have at least 2 kernels (except AMD SEMPRON, Athlon 64 and Intel Celeron D, Celeron 4xx). The number of cores is relevant in 3D rendering or video coding, as well as in programs that are optimized for multithreading multiple nuclei. In other cases (for example, in office and Internet tasks) they are useless.

Four nuclei They have Intel Core 2 Extreme and Core 2 Quad processors with the following labels: QX9xxx, Q9xxx, Q8XXX, QX6XXX;
AMD Phenom X3 - 3 cores;
AMD Phenom X4 - 4 kernels.

It must be remembered that the number of cores significantly increases the power consumption of the CPU and improves nutritional requirements for the motherboard and the power supply!

But the generation and architecture of the nucleus strongly affect the performance of any processor.
For example, if you take two-core Intel Pentium D and Core 2 DUO with the same frequent, system bus and cache memory, then Core 2 Duo will undoubtedly win.

CPU frequencies, memory and tires of motherboard

It is also very important that the coincidence of the frequencies of various components.
Let's say if your motherboard supports the frequency of the 800 MHz memory bus, and the DDR2-677 memory module is installed, the memory module frequency will reduce the performance.

At the same time, if the motherboard does not support the frequency of 800 MHz, and while the DDR2-800 module is installed, it will work, but at a lower frequency.

Caches

The processor cache is primarily affected when working with CAD systems, large databases and graphics. Cash is the memory with a greater access speed, intended to speed up the data contained constantly in memory at a lower access speed (hereinafter the "main memory"). Caching is used by CPU, hard drives, browsers and web servers.

When the CPU refers to the data, the cache is primarily investigated. If the cache found an entry with an identifier that coincides with the identifier of the requested data item, the data elements in the cache are used. This case is called cache getting. If the cache has not found records containing a requested data item, it is read from the main memory in the cache, and become available for subsequent appeals. Such a case is called a cache laff. The percentage of cache appeals, when the result is found in it, is called the level of hit or the cache rate.
The percentage of cache in the Intel processors above.

All CPUs are characterized by the amount of caches (up to 3) and their volume. The fastest cache - first level (L1), the slowest - third (L3). Cash L3 has only AMD Phenom processors so it's very important that the cache L1 has a large volume.

We tested the dependence of productivity from the amount of cache. If you compare the results of Prey and Quake 4's 3D shooters, which are typical game applications, the performance difference between 1 and 4 MB is approximately as follows, both between the processors with a frequency difference of 200 MHz. The same applies to video coding tests for DivX 6.6 and XVID 1.1.2 codecs, as well as the WinRar 3.7 archiver. However, such intensively loading applications CPUs like 3DStudio MAX 8, LAME MP3 Encoder or H.264 Encoder V2 from MainConcept is not too winning from increasing the cache size.
Recall that the L2 cache much more affects the performance of CPU Intel Core 2 than AMD Athlon 64 x2 or Phenom, since Intel Cache L2 is common to all nuclei, and AMD is separate for each nucleus! In this regard, Phenom works optimally with the cache.

RAM

As already mentioned, the RAM is characterized by frequency and volume. At the same time, 2 types of DDR2 and DDR3 memory are available, which differ in architectural, performance, frequency and supply voltage - that is, everything!
The frequency of the memory module must coincide with the frequency of the module itself.

The amount of RAM also affects the performance of the operating system and on the resource-intensive applications.
Calculations Simple - Windows XP is in RAM after loading 300-350 MB. If there are additional programs in the startup, then they also load RAM. That is, 150-200 MB are free. There may be placed only light office applications.
For comfortable work with AutoCAD, graphic applications, 3DMAX, encoding and graphics requires at least 1 GB of RAM. If Windows Vista is used - then at least 2 GB.

Graphic subsystem

Often in office computers are used motherboards with built-in graphics. Motherboards on such chipsets (G31, G45, AMD 770G, etc.) have the letter G in marking.
Such built-in video cards are used part of the RAM for video memory, thereby reducing the amount of RAM space available for the user.

Accordingly, to increase the performance, the built-in video card must be turned off in the motherboard BIOS, and install an external (discrete) video card in the PCI-Express slot.
All video cards differ in the graphic chipset, the frequency of its conveyors, the number of pipelines, the frequency of video memory, the discharge of the video memory bus.

Subsystem drives

The performance of the drives is very much affected by accessing large amounts of data - video, audio, as well as when opening a large number of small files.

From the specifications that affect the speed of access to the files, it is necessary to mark the type of hard drive interface (HDD) - parallel IDE or successive SATA and SATA-2 and Winchester cache - 8, 16 or 32 MB.
At the moment, it is recommended to install Winchesters only with the SATA-2 interface that has the greatest bandwidth and with the highest cache.

Software factors:

1. Number of installed programs
2. Fragmentation of the file system
3. File System Errors, Bad Sectors
4. Fragment of the OS registry
5. OS registry errors
6. Switch file size (virtual memory)
7. Enabled elements of visualization of the graphical interface OS
8. Windows programs and services loading in autoload

This is not a complete list, but it is these particular Windows features can brake her work.
But we will talk about these characteristics, settings and parameters in the next article.

Throughout the development of the whole genus, our essential satellites were stones. Axes, arrows tips ... Pyramids in the end! One silicon worth it - because thanks to him, we got fire. Let me not so long ago, but in the name of the development of the computer industry in the "bronze" century, people decided to torment their "stones" again. Why it all started, we even think afraid. Whether since the ancient Z80, or later, in a series of 286/386 processors, at some point a certain group of people discovered a new fascinating occupation, or rather, became the founder of the new direction - overclocking. The word, strictly speaking, is not ours, with English translates as "promotion". Our definition took a little different kind - acceleration, that is, an increase in productivity. About what it is and how it happens, we will negone in this article.

Where it began

In those glorious years, when prices for computer components literally shook, the processors succumbed not so simple. If the computer now disperses almost no work - the presence of the keyboard and the corresponding software allows you to do it literally in a few minutes, then the increase in the clock frequency took place with the use of the soldering iron, rearrange the jumpers and the closure of the legs in processors. That is, at that time, overclocking was available only to the chosen - bold, selfless and experienced technicians.

But there was not only processors acceleration. The following were video cards and RAM, and quite recently enthusiasts achieved an increase in the performance of the optical mouse.

Why is it necessary?

And, in fact, for what we have gathered something to do? Let's lay down all the pros and cons, so that you understand, do we need it? The advantages include the following items:

• Increased performance has never stopped anyone. Its increasing number cannot be accurately predicted, it all depends on the components used. For example, the increase from acceleration of the processor with a powerful video card almost always increases speed in 3D applications. Although, not even when an increase in productivity in games, the productivity of the computer as a whole will be distributed to archiving, transcoding, editing video / sound, arithmetic calculations and other useful operations. But from the "tuning" of the memory of the winnings, most likely, will not be so big, as from the acceleration of the processor or video card.
• Many concepts with which you will meet in the overclocking process will give invaluable experience.

And here is the other side of the coin:

• There is a risk to destroy the equipment. Although it depends on your hands, the quality of the components used and, finally, the skills during stop.
• Reducing the term of operation of accelerated components. Here, alas, you can not do anything: with high voltage and a very unrest frequency, with poor cooling, you can shorten the life of the "iron" of two times. This may seem unacceptable, but there is one detail: on average, the period of operation of the modern processor is from ten years. Much this or a little, everyone decides for himself. We are just reminding that, as of today, progress has reached such a development speed that the processor, released two or three years ago, is considered to be incredibly obsolete. What can I talk about five ...

Basic concepts

After placing the processor, the manufacturer creates a whole series (ruler) with its various characteristics, and often based on a single single processor. Why do you tell me, the frequencies differ on two identical processors? Do you really think that the company is released, manages to program each processor on a certain frequency? Of course, there is a different way. The frequency of junior processors of the line without problems can achieve even older, moreover, sometimes exceeding it. But from all sides, there are hidden problems, one of which is a question of a successful selection of "stone" ... However, this is another story that we will tell next time. Because for further study of the material, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with all terms that will somehow appear in the text.

Bios. (BASIC INPUT-OUTPUT SYSTEM) - Elementary I / O System. In fact, it is an intermediary between the hardware and software environments. And more specifically, it represents a small configuration program containing settings for the entire "iron" content of your computer. In the settings, you can make your changes: for example, changing the frequency of the processor. BIOS itself is located on a separate chip with flash memory directly in the motherboard.

FSB. (Front Side Bus) - a system or processor bus is the main channel for providing the processor communication with other devices in the system. The system bus is also the basis for forming the frequency of other computer data tires, such as AGP, PCI, PCI-E, Serial-ATA, as well as RAM. It is it that serves as the main tool in increasing the frequency of the CPU (processor). Multiplying the frequency of the processor tire on the processor multiplier (CPU Multiplier) and provides the frequency of the processor.

Beginning with Pentium 4., Corporation Intel began to apply technology QPB. (Quad Pumped Bus) - She QDr. (Quad Data Rate) - the essence of which consists in the transfer of four 64-bit data blocks for the processor's work clock, i.e. With a real frequency, for example, in 200mhz we get 800mhz efficient.

At the same time, once competing AMD Athlon. The transmission goes on both fronts of the signal, as a result, the effective transmission rate is twice as high than the real frequency, 166MHz at Athlon XP gives 333 effective megahertz.

Approximately the same thing in the line of processors from AMD. - K8, (Opteron, Athlon 64, SEMPRON (S754 / 939 / AM2)): The FSB bus has been continued, now it is only a reference frequency (the clock generator - HTT), multiplying which a special multiplier we will receive an effective frequency of data exchange between the processor and external devices. Technology received name HYPER TRANSPORT - HT And it is a special high-speed serial channels with a synchronization frequency of 1 GHz with a "double" transmission rate (DDR) consisting of two unidirectional tires of 16 bits width. The maximum data transfer rate is 4 Gbps. Also, the processor, AGP, PCI, PCI-E, SERIAL-ATA frequency is also formed from the clock generator. The memory frequency is obtained from the frequency of the processor, due to the downward coefficient.

Jumper It is a certain "closer" of contacts collected in a miniature case. Depending on which contacts on the board are closed (or which are not closed), the system determines its own parameters.

CPU

Processor multiplier Frequency Ratio / Multiplier) allows you to achieve the resulting final processor frequency, leaving the system tire frequency unchanged. At the moment, in all Intel and AMD processors (except for Athlon 64 FX, Intel Pentium XE and Core 2 Xtreme), the multiplier is blocked at least in the direction of magnification.

Processor Cash (Cache) - a small amount of very fast memory built into the processor directly. The cache has a significant impact on the rate of processing information, as it keeps the data at the moment, and even those that may be needed in the near future (data in the processor the data pre-election block). Cache has two levels and is indicated as follows:

L1 - The first-level cache, the fastest and less capacious of all levels, directly "communicates" with the processor core and most often has a divided structure: one half of the data ( L1d.), second - instructions ( L1i). A typical volume for AMD S462 (A) and S754 / 939/940 processors is 128KB, Intel S478 \\ LGA775 - 16KB.

L2. - The second-level cache, in which there are data from the first-level cache, is less quick, but more capacious. Typical meanings: 256, 512, 1024 and 2048KB.

L3. - In the desktop processors, for the first time in the Intel Pentium 4 Extreme Edition processor (Gallatin) and had a capacity in 2048kb. Also, I also found myself a place in server CPUs, and soon it should appear in the new generation of AMD K10 processors.

Core - Silicon chip, crystal consisting of several tens of millions of transistors. He, in fact, is a processor - is engaged in the implementation of instructions and processing the data coming to it.

Processor stepping - New version, generation of a processor with changed characteristics. Judging by the statistics, the more stepping, the better the processor accelerates, although not always.

Instructions sets - MMX, 3DNow!, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, etc. Since 1997, with the introduction of the Intel campaign in the first in the history of the MMX manual (MULTIMEDIA EXTENSIONS), overclockers received another way to increase productivity. These instructions are nothing more than the concept of SIMD (SINGLE INSTRUCTION MANY DATA - "one command is a lot of data") and allow no little processing of several data items through one instruction. By themselves, they are, of course, do not increase the speed of processing information, but with the support of these instructions with programs, a certain increase is noted.

TechProcess (manufacturing technology) - along with various optimizations carried out with each new stepping, the decrease in the process is the most effective way to overcome the overclocking of the processor. Denoted by strange lettering "MKM", "Nm". Example: 0.13 \\ 0.09 \\ 0.065MKM or 130 \\ 90 \\ 65НМ.

Socket. (Socket) - the type of processor connector to install the processor in the motherboard. For example, S462 \\ 478 \\ 479 \\ 604 \\ 754 \\ 775 \\ 939 \\ 940 \\ am2, etc.

Sometimes campaigns manufacturers, along with numerical name, use alphabetic, so for example S775 - it is Socket T, S462 - Socket A. Such a visible confusion can be a little disorienting the novice user. Be careful.

Memory

SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory) - Dynamic memory synchronization system with arbitrary access. This type includes all RAM applicable in modern desktop computers.

DDR SDRAM (DOUBLE DATA RATE SDRAM) is an advanced SDRAM type with a doubled data of the data transmitted per tact.

DDR2 SDRAM - Further development DDR, allowing you to reach twice the external data tire in comparison with the DDR chip frequency with an equal internal frequency of operation. The entire I / O control logic operates at frequency, two times lower transmission rate, that is, the effective frequency is twice as high as the real one. It is performed on a more subtle 90-nm technical process and along with a reduced rated voltage to 1.8V (from 2.5V DDR) consumes less energy.

Real and efficient memory frequency - With the advent of DDR and DDR2, the memory in our life includes such a concept as a real frequency - this is the frequency on which these modules operate. The effective frequency is the one on which the memory works on the specifications of DDR, DDR2 standards and others. That is, with a twin amount of data transmitted for the tact. For example: with a real frequency DDR 200MHz effective amounts to 400MHz. Therefore, in the notation it is most often as DDR400. This focus can be considered no more than a marketing stroke. Thus, we are given to understand that, the times the data for the beat is transmitted twice as much, it means that the speed is twice as high ... which is far from that. But for us it is not so important, do not deepen in the marketing debris.

Real frequency, MHz	Effective frequency, MHz	Bandwidth, MBPS
100	200	1600
133	266	2100
166	333	2700
200	400	3200
216	433	3500
233	466	3700
250	500	4000
266	533	4200
275	550	4400
300	600	4800
333	667	5300
350	700	5600
400	800	6400
500	1000	8000
533	1066	8600
667	1333	10600

Designation of memory on theoretical bandwidth - buying memory along with the familiar notation like DDR 400 or DDR2 800, in our case, you can see such names as PC-3200 and PC2-6400. All this is nothing more than the designation of the same memory (DDR 400 and DDR2 800, respectively), but only in theoretical bandwidth specified in MB \\ s. Another marketing move.

Access time memories - Time during which information is read from the memory cell. Distributed to "NS" (nanoseconds). In order to translate these values \u200b\u200bin the frequency, 1000 should be divided by the number of these nanoseconds. Thus, you can get a real frequency of operation of RAM.

Timing - Delays arising from operations with the contents of the memory cells submitted below. This is not all their number, but only the most basic:

• CAS # Latency (TCL) is a period between the reader and the start of data transmission.
• tras (Active to Precharge Command) - the minimum time between the activation command and the closing command of one memory bank.
• tRCD (Active to Read or Write Delay) - the minimum time between the activation command and the read / write command.
• tRP (Precharge Command Period) - the minimum time between the closing command and re-activation of one memory bank.
• Command Rate (Command Rate: 1T / 2T) - command interface delays occurring due to a large number of physical memory banks. Manual configuration is amenable to non-Intel chipsets only.
• SPD (Serial Presence Detect) is a chip located on the RAM module. Contains information about frequency, timings, as well as a manufacturer and date of manufacture of this module.

Theory

How exactly will we exceed the nominal frequency of the processor, you already guessed, right? Everything is simple as a bagel: We have a system bus (Aka FSB or a clock generator for AMD K8) and the processor multiplier (it is the same multiplication coefficient). Elementally change the numeric values \u200b\u200bof one of them and at the output we obtain the desired frequency.

For example: We have a certain processor with a standard frequency in 2200mhz. We start thinking, and why did this manufacturer famed so when in the same lineup with the same core there are models with 2600mhz and above? You need to fix this! There are two ways: change the frequency of the processor tire or change the processor multiplier. But for starters, if you do not even have the initial knowledge in computer technology and is not able to one only the name of the processor, to determine the standard FSB frequency or its multiplier for it, I advise you to apply a more reliable method. Specially for this there are programs that allow you to obtain exhaustive information on your processor. CPU-Z in its segment is a leader, however, there are others. You can use Sisoftware.Sandra with the same success, Rightmark CPU Clock Utility. Taking advantage of the programs received, we can easily calculate the FSB frequency and processor factor (and at the same time a bunch of previously unknown, but damn useful information).

Take, for example, the Intel Pentium 2.66GHz processor (20x133mhz) on the Northwood kernel.

After simple operations in the form of raising FSB frequency, we get 3420mhz.

Here it is like! We are already seeing how in your minds they were buried, multiplying inconceivable numbers into monstrous coefficients ... Not so fast friends! Yes, you all understood everything: for overclocking, we will need either an increase in the multiplier, or the frequency of the system tire (and best of all, immediately, and most importantly, more - approx. Hidden inner greed). But not everything is so simple in our lives, the sticks in the wheels are enough, so let's start, let's get acquainted with them.

You already know that most of the processor present in the market have a blocked multiplier ... Well, at least, in the other side, wherever we wanted - in the direction of magnification. Such an opportunity is only the lucky owners of AMD Athlon 64 FX and some Pentium XE models. (Options with rarity Athlon XP, released until 2003, are not considered). These models are almost without problems (with the memory and insufficient FSB frequency reserve from the motherboard) can drive their own and so already "unshelling" stones. " The unlocked multiplier in this series of processors is nothing other than a gift to users who gave very considerable money. All the rest, who is not able to spend $ 1000 on the processor, should go (no, not by forest) just another way ...

Increase FSB frequency or clock generator. Yes, this is our Savior, who almost in 90% of cases is the main tool for overclocking. Depending on how long ago you purchased your processor or motherboard, your standard FSB frequency will be varied.

Starting from the first Athlon at AMD and Intel Pentium on S478, the standard was 100mhz system bus. Next, "Athlons" switched first to 133, then 166 and eventually finished their lives at the 200mhz bus. Intel also did not sleep and gradually increased frequencies: 133, then immediately 200, now 266, and even 333MHz (1333MHz in terms of QDR).

That is, having a modern motherboard with good potential to an increase in the frequency of the clock generator (actually this quartz, the FSB frequency control, can also be designated as a PLL), everything becomes extremely simple - this is an increase in the frequency itself. To what limits and how to change it actually, we will talk a little later.

We hope you have not forgotten what FSB is? No, there is no megahertz, on which it works, but direct value. FSB is a system tire that connects the processor with other devices in the system. But at the same time, it is the basis for forming the frequency of other tires, such as AGP, PCI, S-ATA, as well as RAM. And what does it mean? And therefore, this is that with increasing it, we will automatically increase the frequencies of AGP, PCI, S-ATA and "RAM." And if the increase in the latter within reasonable limits only to our hand (currently exclusively motherboards based on the NVIDIA NForce4 SLI Intel Edition chipset can accelerate the processor, regardless of memory), then S-ATA, PCI and AGP with PCI-E not necessary. The fact is that they are pretty sensitively perceive such experiments and meet us very unpleasant consequences. Tire data rates are: PCI - 33.3MHz, AGP - 66.6MHz, SATA and PCI-E - 100MHz. And it is extremely recommended to significantly exceed them. Unstable work of the same S-ATA can lead to data loss from your S-ATA disk!

That is, this is a very significant limitation ... it was. And this is what: seeking about the benefits of such a miscalculation, some producers of chipsets decided to eliminate this problem independently. All began with the fact that special dividers began to be applied, automatically switching PCI and AGP tires per nominal at 100, 133, 166 ... MHz. (And such interesting situations arose, in which the processor was stable at 166mhz, originally worked at 133, but at 165 - in any way!), Now you understand why. But not everyone taught this lesson. Far behind examples do not need: released at the first Athlon 64 Era chipsets Via K8T800. Having very good functionality and price, it is probably not able to fix the frequencies of PCI \\ AGP \\ S-ATA with increasing HTT. That is, more than 220-230MHz increments on the clock generator you will not receive. So, sad gentlemen. Be vigilant, do not get on a similar chipset (although it is already the little thing).

Thus, we put the point on this section of the articles and go to the next. A little reviewed the theoretical part, plus some nuances that can get caught on your way. It's time, or to start a business. At the same time, sacrificing along the way, what other sticks from the wheels have to be removed.

To be continued…

The motherboard is a circuit board (PCB) that connects the processor, memory and all your extension boards together for the full operation of the computer. When choosing a motherboard, it is necessary to take into account its form factor. The form factor is the global standard that determines the size of the motherboard, the location of interfaces, ports, sockets, slots, the location of the attachment to the housing, the connector for connecting the power supply.

Form factor

Most motherboards currently made are ATX, such motherboards have dimensions of 30.5 x 24.4 cm. A little less (24.4 x 24.4 cm) MATX Form Factor. MINI-ITX motherboards have quite modest dimensions (17 x 17 cm). The ATX motherboard has standard connectors such as PS / 2 ports, USB ports, a parallel port, a serial port built into the BIOS motherboard, etc. ATX Motherboard is installed in a standard case.

Chipset motherboard

As a rule, various slots and connectors are installed in the motherboard. The chipset is all chips that are available on the motherboard, which ensure the interaction of all computer subsystems. The main manufacturers of chipsets are currently Intel, Nvidia and ATI (AMD). The chipset includes north and South Bridge.

Intel P67 chipset diagram

North Most Designed to support video card and RAM and direct work with the processor. In addition, the northern bridge controls the frequency of the system tire. However, today often the controller is embedded in the processor, this significantly reduces heat dissipation and simplifies the functioning of system controllers

South Most Provides input and output functions, and containing controllers of devices located on the periphery, such as audio, hard disk and others. It also contains tire controllers that contribute to the connection of peripheral devices, for example, USB or PCI bus.

The speed of the computer depends on how coordinated the interaction of the chipset and processor. For greater efficiency, the processor and chipset should be from one manufacturer. In addition, it is necessary to take into account that the chipset must correspond to the volume and type of RAM.

Processor socket

SOKET is the type of connectivity in the maternal card, which will correspond to the connector of your processor and intended for its connection. It is the socket connector that shares motherboards.

• Sockets starting on AM, FM and S support AMD processors.
• Sockets starting on LGA have the support of Intel processors.

What kind of socket type corresponds to your processor, you will learn from the instructions for the processor yourself, and in general, the choice of motherboard is occurring simultaneously with the choice of processor, they seem to be selected for each other.

Slots of RAM

When choosing a motherboard, the type and frequency of RAM is of great importance. At the moment, DDR3 memory is used with a frequency of 1066, 1333, 1600, 1800 or 2000 MHz, it was DDR2, DDR and SDRAM to it. One type memory will not be able to connect to the motherboard if its connectors are intended for the memory of another type. Although currently there are models of motherboards with slots and for DDR2, and for DDR3. Despite the fact that the RAM to connect to the motherboard intended for greater frequency is better not to do this, as it will negatively affect the operation of the computer. If in the future it is planned to increase the amount of RAM, then it is necessary to choose a motherboard with a large number of connectors for it (the maximum number is 4).

PCI Slot

In the PCI slot, you can connect extension maps, such as sound card, modem, TV tuners, network card, Wi-Fi Wireless Map, etc. We want to note that the more the slots data, the more additional devices you can connect to the motherboard. The presence of two and more identical PCI-E X16 slots for connecting video cards about the possibility of their simultaneous and parallel operation.

In view of the fact that modern additional devices include cooling systems and simply have a dimensional view, they can interfere with the connection to a nearby slot of a different device. Therefore, even if you are not going to connect a bunch of internal additional boards to a computer, it's still worth choosing a motherboard with at least 1-2 PCI slots so that you can connect even a minimum set of devices without any problems.

PCI EXPRESS.

PCI Express slot is required to connect a PCI-E video card. Some boards that have 2 or more PCI-E connector support SLI or CrossFire configuration, to connect multiple video cards simultaneously. Therefore, if you need to connect two or three identical video cards simultaneously, for example, for games or work with graphics, you must choose a motherboard with the corresponding number of PCI Express X16 slots.

Tire frequency

The tire frequency is the total bandwidth of the motherboard, and the higher the performance of the entire system will be faster. Please note that the processor bus frequency must match the frequency of the motherboard bus, otherwise the processor with the frequency of the tire above, a supported motherboard, will not work.

Hard disks connectors

The most relevant today is SATA connector for connecting hard drives, which came to replace the old IDE connector. Unlike the idea, Sata has a higher data transfer rate. Modern SATA 3 connectors support the speed of 6 GB / s. The more SATA connectors, the more hard drives you can connect to the system board. But note that the number of hard drives may be limited to the system unit housing. Therefore, if you want to install more than two hard drives, then make sure that this feature is in the case.

Despite the fact that the SATA connector actively displaces the IDE, new maternal card models are still equipped with the IDE connector. To a greater extent, this is done for the convenience of the upgrade, that is, after updating the components of the computer, in order to maintain all the available information on the old hard disk with the IDE by the connector and do not experience difficulties with its copying.

If you buy a new computer and plan to use an old hard disk, then the maximum recommend it to use as an additional hard drive. Still, it is better to rewrite the new HDD with SATA connection, as the old will noticeably slow down the work of the entire system.

USB connectors

Pay attention to the number of USB connections on the back panel of the maternal card. What they are more, that is better, since almost all existing additional devices have a USB connector for connecting to a computer, namely: keyboards, mice, flash drives, mobile phone, Wi-Fi adapter, printer, external hard drive, modem, and t .P. To use all these devices, a sufficient number of connections are needed for each device.

USB 3.0 is a new standard of information transfer through a USB interface, the data transfer rate reaches up to 4.8 GB / s.

Sound

Each motherboard has a sound controller. If you are a lover listen to music, we recommend choosing a motherboard with a large number of sound channels.

• 2.0 - the sound card supports stereo sounds, two columns or headphones;
• 5.1 - The sound card supports the audio system of volumetric sound, namely 2 front speakers, 1 central channel, 2 rear speakers and subwoofer;
• 7.1 - Support for the system of the volume sound, has the same architecture as for the operation of the system 5.1, only the lateral speakers are added.

If the maternal card has support for a multichannel audio system, you can easily build a home computer based on a computer.

Additional functions

Fans You can connect to any motherboard, which has connections for fans (coolers), to ensure reliable and good cooling of all internal components in the system unit. It is recommended to have several such connectors.

Ethernet - This is the controller installed on the motherboard, with the help of it is connected to the Internet. If you plan to actively use the Internet, and your Internet provider supports 1 Gb / s speed, then buy a motherboard with such speed support. In general, if you buy a motherboard for a fairly long period of time, and in the next 3 years you do not plan to change it, it is better to immediately take a card with a hygabit network support, taking into account the pace of technology development.

W.i-F.i. The built-in module will be needed so if you have a Wi-Fi router. Having bought such a motherboard, you get rid of extra wires, but the truth of Wi-Fi will not be able to please you with high speed like Ethernet.

Bluetooth - A very useful thing, since thanks to bluetooth controller you can not only download content from the computer to your mobile phone, as well as connect the wireless mouse and keyboard and even a Bluetooth headset, thereby getting rid of the wires.

RAID controller- With it, you can not be afraid for the safety of files on the computer in the event of a hard drive breakdown. To enable this technology, you must install. At least 2 identical hard drives in mirror mode, and all data from one drive will be automatically copied to another.

Solid-state capacitors - This is the use of more resistant to the load and the temperature of the capacitors containing the polymer. They have a longer service life and they are better tolerated high temperature. Almost all manufacturers have already moved to them in the manufacture of motherboards.

Digital power system - Provides power processor and the rest of the circuit without drops and sufficiently. There are both cheap digital blocks on the market that are no better than analog and more expensive and skillful. It will be needed if you have a weak power supply or poor-quality power grid, and you do not use UPS, or you will overclock the processor.

Buttons for rapid acceleration - allow you to increase the frequency of the tire or the supplied voltage with one touch. Will be useful to overclockers.

Static voltage protection - This problem seems insignificant while you do not pull in the winter to your favorite, after removing the sweater. And although it happens so infrequently, it still hurts the fee with one careless movement.

Military Class.- This is the passage of card testing in conditions of high humidity, dryness, cold, heat, temperature drop and other stress tests. If the motherboard passed all these tests, it means that it may fail to fail the discharge of lightning. Significant different classes, characterized by a set of tests passed.

Multyobiosity Save you money and nerves after unsuccessful experiences with BIOS or UEFI. Otherwise, you get a non-working fee. And for her recovery, you will need to find another working motherboard, preferably the same type. You can simply switch to the backup UEFI in multob-cards. Some payments are implemented as a rollback to the initial UEFI. Very useful for fans of experiments.

"Related" USB or LAN ports- This is a technology that is practically on all motherboards. It is that the USB speed increases only under certain conditions. And the increase in the speed of the LAN network you will notice only with a decrease in Ping in network games