Composition and content of systems theory. Systems theory and systems analysis

There is a point of view according to which “the theory of systems ... belongs to the failed sciences ”. This thesis is based on the fact that systems theory is built and based on the conclusions and methods of various sciences: mathematical analysis, cybernetics, graph theory, and others. However, it is known that any scientific discipline is formed on the basis of already existing theoretical concepts. General systems theory acts as an independent scientific discipline already because, as will be shown later, it has its own subject, its own methodology and its own methods of cognition. Another thing is that a holistic study of objects requires the active use of knowledge from various fields. In this regard, the general theory of systems not only relies on various sciences, but unites, synthesizes, integrates them in itself. In this regard, the first and main feature of systems theory is its interdisciplinary nature.

Defining the subject of general systems theory, various scientific schools see it in a different light. Thus, the well-known American scientist J. van Gig limits it to the issues of “structure, behavior, process, interaction, purpose, etc.”. Basically, the subject of this theory boils down to systems design. In this case, only one of its practically applied side and direction is noted. A certain paradox arises: the general theory of systems is recognized, but its unified theoretical concept does not exist. It turns out to be dissolved in a variety of methods used to analyze specific system objects.

More productive is the search for approaches to highlighting the subject of the general theory of systems in the person of a certain class of integral objects, their essential properties and laws.

The subject of general systems theory make up patterns, principles and methods that characterize the functioning, structure and development of integral objects of the real world.

Systemology is a specific area of ​​general systems theory that deals with integral objects presented as an object of cognition. Its main tasks are:

Representation of specific processes and phenomena as systems;

Justification of the presence of certain systemic signs in specific objects;

Determination of backbone factors for various holistic formations;

Typification and classification of systems on certain grounds and a description of the features of their various types;

Compilation of generalized models of specific systemic formations.

Hence, systemology is only part of the OTC. It reflects the side of it that expresses the doctrine of systems as complex and holistic formations. It is designed to find out their essence, content, main features, properties, etc. Systemology answers questions such as: What is a system? What objects can be classified as system objects? What determines the integrity of this or that process? etc. But it does not answer the question: How or how should systems be studied? This is a question of systemic research.

In the most precise sense systems research is a scientific process of developing new scientific knowledge, one of the types of cognitive activity, characterized by objectivity, reproducibility, evidence and precision... It is based on a wide variety of principles, methods, means and receptions... This research is specific in its essence and content. It is one of the varieties of the cognitive process, with the goal of organizing it in such a way that it would ensure a holistic study of the object and ultimately obtain its integrative model. Hence, the main tasks of the systemic study of objects follow. These include:

Development of organizational procedures for the cognitive process, ensuring the acquisition of holistic knowledge;

Selection for each specific case of such a set of methods that would allow you to get an integrative picture of the functioning and development of the object;

Drawing up an algorithm for the cognitive process, which makes it possible to comprehensively explore the system.

Systems research is based on appropriate methodology, methodological framework and systems engineering... They determine the entire process of cognition of objects and phenomena of a systemic nature. The objectivity, reliability and accuracy of the knowledge gained directly depend on them.

The foundation of general systems theory and systems research is methodology... It is represented by a set of principles and methods of constructing and organizing theoretical and practical activities aimed at a holistic study of real processes and phenomena of the surrounding reality. The methodology constitutes the conceptual and categorical framework of the general theory of systems, includes the laws and patterns structure and functioning, as well as the development of complex objects, acting cause-and-effect connections and relationship, reveals the internal mechanisms of interaction system components, her connection with the outside world.

The methodological foundations of systems research are represented by a set of methods and algorithms for the theoretical and practical development of system objects. Methods are expressed in certain techniques, rules, procedures used in the cognitive process. To date, a very large arsenal of methods used in systems research has been accumulated, which can be subdivided into general scientific and private ones. TO the first of these include methods of analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, comparison, juxtaposition, analogy and others. NS second belongs to the whole variety of methods of specific scientific disciplines, which find their application in the systemic knowledge of specific objects. The research algorithm determines the sequence of performing certain procedures and operations that ensure the creation of an integral model of the phenomenon under study. It characterizes the main stages and steps that reflect the movement of the cognitive process from its initial point to the final one. Methods and algorithms are inextricably linked with each other. Each research stage has its own set of methods. A correct and well-defined sequence of operations, combined with correctly chosen methods, ensures the scientific reliability and accuracy of the research results obtained.

Systems engineering covers the problems of designing, building, operating and testing complex systems. In many ways, it is based on the active application of knowledge from such areas as probability theory, cybernetics, information theory, game theory, etc. Systems engineering is characterized by the fact that it most closely approaches the solution of specific applied and practical problems arising in the course of systems research.

Along with the presence of its own structure, the general theory of systems carries a great scientific and functional load. Note the following functions of general systems theory:

- the function of ensuring the holistic knowledge of objects; - function of terminology standardization; - descriptive function; - explanatory function; - predictive function.

General systems theory is a science that does not stand still, but is constantly evolving. Trends in its development in modern conditions can be seen in several directions.

The first of these is the theory of rigid systems.... They received this name due to the influence of physical and mathematical sciences. These systems have strong and enduring connections and relationships. Their analysis requires strict quantitative constructions. The basis of the latter is a deductive method and well-defined rules of action and evidence. In this case, as a rule, we are talking about inanimate nature. At the same time, mathematical methods are increasingly penetrating other areas. This approach is implemented, for example, in a number of sections of economic theory.

The second direction is the theory of soft systems... Systems of this kind are considered as part of the universe, perceived as a single whole, which are able to maintain their essence, despite the changes taking place in it. Soft systems can adapt to environmental conditions while maintaining their characteristics. The solar system, the headwaters of the river, the family, the bee hive, the country, the nation, the enterprise - all these are systems whose constituent elements are constantly changing. Systems related to soft, have their own structure, react to external influences, but at the same time retain their inner essence and ability to function and develop.

The third direction is represented by the theory of self-organization... It is a new and evolving research paradigm that deals with the holistic aspects of systems. By some estimates, it is the most revolutionary approach for general systems theory. Self-organizing systems mean self-healing systems in which the result is the system itself. These include all living systems. They are constantly self-renewing through metabolism and energy received as a result of interaction with the external environment. They are characterized by the fact that they maintain the invariability of their internal organization, while allowing, nevertheless, temporal and spatial changes in their structure. These changes cause serious specific moments in their research, require the application of new principles and approaches to their study.

In the modern development of OTS, the dependence of empirical and applied questions on ethical aspects... Designers of a specific system must consider the possible consequences of the systems they create. They are obliged to assess the impact of the changes introduced by the system on the present and future, both of the systems themselves and their users. People are building new factories and factories, changing river beds, converting timber into wood, paper - and all this is often done without due regard to their impact on the climate and the environment. Therefore, OTS cannot but be based on certain ethical principles. The morality of systems is related to the value system that drives the developer, and depends on how these values ​​align with the values ​​of the user and consumer. It is natural that the ethical side of systems affects the responsibility of private entrepreneurs and heads of state organizations for the safety of people involved in production and consumption.

General systems theory has become invaluable in solving many practical problems. Along with the development of human society, the volume and complexity of the problems that must be resolved have increased significantly. But it is simply impossible to do this with the help of traditional analytical approaches. To solve an increasing number of problems, a wide field of view is needed, which covers the entire spectrum of the problem, and not its small individual parts. It is inconceivable to imagine modern management and planning processes without solid reliance on systemic methods. Any decision-making is based on a system of measurements and assessments, on the basis of which appropriate strategies are formed to ensure the achievement of the system's set goals. The application of the general theory of systems laid the foundation for the modeling of complex processes and phenomena, ranging from such large-scale processes as global world processes to the smallest physical and chemical particles. From a systemic point of view, economic activity is considered today, the effectiveness of the activity and development of firms and enterprises is assessed.

Consequently, general systems theory is an interdisciplinary science designed to cognize the phenomena of the surrounding world in a holistic manner. It was formed over a long historical period, and its appearance was a reflection of the emerging social need for cognition not of individual aspects of objects and phenomena, but the creation of general, integrative ideas about them.

Transportation of the victim.

Traces of timeless and correct assistance on the stage can be made by the person, as well as during the preparation for transportation and delivery of the patient to the medical one, and establish that there are no additional rules. The head is not only about delivering the victim and some kind of transport, but rather quickly come in, as they have ensured the maximum calmness and hand position of the patient.

The best transport for a patient with burdens. At the same time, it is possible to vikoristovuvati p_druchny zasobi: doshki, ogyag thin. You can carry the victim in your arms. Before the rest of the injured man lay on the night, which cover the carpet with a cloth, put the burden on that side of the injured man, de cough. It’s quiet, but I’ll need help, two, stink of guilty of the article from the new side. One to bring his hands to the head and sternum, the other - to the knee and the number of the patient. One hour, without any shipment, it is safe to pay, pay attention to a part of the body, and to lower it on the load. Slid nakrit the patient tim, then є with your hands - odyag, carpet. Yaksho є at the fracture of the ridge, the patient should be put on the hard burdens (shield, doors). For a vidsutnistyu such a carpet, a coat is possible by the way. In such a vypadu put the patient to live. When the patient is on the fracture of the pelvis, the patient should be put on his back because of the bent legs at the knees and at the tazostegnovy slopes in order to get more stiff bullets, if the number of shirts is broken, the lining needs to be put on top of the elastic feet forward, when going uphill, or at gatherings - head forward. All the hour we were guilty of being in the horizontal position.

System- general systems theory deals with the study of the principles, functioning of systems

System- an object or process in which elements are connected by some connections and relationships

System analysis- a set of concepts, methods, procedures and technologies for the study and research of systems.

Methodology, the study of complex, not well-defined problems of theory and practice.

The main tasks of the CA are:

1) decomposition tasks that allow you to break the system into subsystems and elements;

2) the problem of analysis, which consists in finding the properties of the system and determining the patterns of behavior of the system.

3) the problem of synthesis. It consists in determining the structure and parameters of the new system based on the knowledge gained in solving the decomposition problem.

Subsystem- part of the system with some connections and relationships.

Systems approach- a comprehensive approach to the system under consideration, allowing you to look at the system from different points of view.

MAIN STEPS OF SYSTEM ANALYSIS

1) Describe the expected role of the system from the point of view of the supersystem.

2) Describe the real role of the system in achieving the goals of the supersystem.

3) Reveal the composition of the system, i.e. determine the parts of which it consists.

4) Determine the structure of the system and the set of connections between the components.

5) Determine the functions of the system components, i.e. purposeful actions of components, their contribution to the implementation of the role of the system.

6) Reveal the reasons that combine the individual parts into a system, into integrity.

7) Determine all possible connections, communications of the system with the external environment.

8) Consider the system under study in dynamics, in development.

SYSTEM PROPERTIES

The functioning of the system is described by the following characteristics:

1) A state that characterizes an instant photograph, a cut of the system, a stop in its development.

2) Behavior. The concept characterizing the transition from one state to another

3) Equilibrium - the ability of systems in the absence of external disturbing influences to maintain their state for an arbitrarily long time

4) Stability - the ability of the system to return to a state of equilibrium after it has been removed from this state

5) Development - a concept that helps explain complex thermodynamic processes in nature and society

System properties. There are 4 main properties of an object so that it can be considered a system:

1) Integrity and segmentation. The system is an integral system of elements interacting with each other. Elements exist only in the system.

2) Connections. There are significant connections between the elements of the system, which determine the integrative qualities of this system.

3) Organization. For the emergence of a system, it is necessary to form ordered connections, i.e. form a specific structure or organization of the system.

4) Integrative qualities. The presence of a system of integrative qualities inherent in the system as a whole, but not inherent in any of its elements separately.

· Links are ordered in a certain way (If the elements of the pen are tied with a thread, they will be interconnected but not ordered.

The pen has integrative total qualities (it is convenient for it to write and easy to carry)

CONCEPT OF STRUCTURE, TYPES OF STRUCTURES

Structure- a set of connections and elements necessary to achieve the goal. Examples (brain gyrus, faculty, enterprise, crystal lattice of matter, microcircuit)

Types of structures:

1) Structures of linear type (structure of metro stations)

2) Hierarchical structure (enterprise)

3) Structure network type having one input and one output structure.

4) The structure of the matrix type (the matrix structure of the department of an employee of research institutes working on the same topic).

5) Molecular structure of matter

6) Computer structure (allows you to choose an efficient topology)

If the structure and its elements are poorly described or poorly defined, then such objects are called poorly or poorly structured.

METHODS FOR DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEMS

The study of any system involves solving the problem of analysis and synthesis. It is advisable to start describing the system from three points of view: functional, morphological and informational.

Functional description is a description of the laws of functioning, evolution of the system, algorithms of its behavior or work. The functional description assumes that the system performs some function. The description can be one functional and many functional. The functional description can be algorithmic, analytical, graphic, tabular, by means of timing diagrams of functioning or verbally (verbally).

Morphological (structural, topological) system description. This is a description of the structure of a system or a description of the aggregates of this system that are necessary to achieve the goal.

Informational (Infological, Informational-logical) system description. Description of the information connection of the system with the environment and between subsystems.

CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

There are many ways to classify.

1) Classification of the system in relation to the environment. All systems are divided into open and closed. In the open there is an exchange with the environment, but in the closed there is no.

2) By the origin of the system. Systems are divided into 2.1 artificial (robots, automata, tools, machines, etc.) 2.2 natural (living not living, ecological, social) 2.3 virtual (imaginary, but not really existing) 2.4 mixed (organizational, biotechnical, economic, etc.) etc.)

3) According to the description of system variables 3.1 with qualitative variables 3.2 with quantitative variables 3.3 with mixed variables

4) By the type of description of the functioning of the system 4.1 black box type (the system functioning law is not known, only input and output messages are known) 4.2 not parameterized (the law is not described, only some a priori properties of the law are known) 4.3 parameterized (the law is known up to parameters and it can be attributed to a certain class of 4.4 dependencies of the white box type (the law of functioning is fully known)

5) By the way the system is controlled 5.1 externally controlled 5.2 internally controlled (self-government or self-regulation) 5.3 with combined self-government

6) By the nature of behavior: deterministic, probabilistic and game.

7) By the complexity of structure and behavior: simple and complex. Challenging a system is called if it lacks resources for effective functioning and management (Chemical reactions at the molecular level, a cell of biological education, economics at the macro level, etc.)

8) By the degree of organization: well organized, poorly organized and self-organizing. Well organized system- all components are defined, all links are established;

Poorly organized- not all components are defined, their properties and connections are not known;

Self-organizing systems- systems that have the property of adapting to changes in environmental conditions, and capable of changing the structure when interacting with the external environment.

Consider the ecological system of the lake. It is an open system of natural origin, the variables of which can be described in a mixed way; The temperature is quantitative, but the structure of the inhabitants is qualitative. The beauty of the lake is only qualitative. By the type of description of the law of functioning, it is not parametrized, although it is possible to distinguish subsystems: algae, fish, flowing or falling out stream, bottom of the bank, etc.

Computer system. It is an open, artificial mixed description, parameterized, externally controlled (programmatically).

System logical drive... It is an open, virtual quantitative description of a white box type.

Firm. Open, mixed origin (organizational) internally managed

Robustness- the property of the system to maintain partial operability in the event of failure of individual elements or subsystems

PROBLEM AND PROBLEM

Problem- a complex practical or theoretical issue that requires resolution and study. Examples:

How to improve the performance of medical institutions

How to increase the activity and independence of students in the study of disciplines

Any problem consists of separate parts of subsystems.

Thus, any real problem must be treated as a tangle of interrelated problems. Such a set of tangle of problems is called a problematic. Problems can be structured, semi-structured and not structured.

1) Structured problems can be divided into parts and the requirements of each part are described.

2) In semi-structured problems the description is approximate and not accurate.

3) Unstructured problems only the qualitative influence of factors and dependencies is known.

REGULARITIES OF INTERACTION OF THE WHOLE AND PART

All patterns can be divided into 4 classes:

1) Regularities of the interaction of the whole and the part

Can be subdivided into 4 subclasses:

1.1 Integrity (emergence). This is a regularity that manifests itself in the form of the emergence of new properties in the system that are absent in its elements. Elements combined into a system, as a rule, lose some of their properties, which they own outside the system.

1.2 Progressive systematization... A process aimed at increasing integrity. It can consist in the strengthening of pre-existing relationships between parts of the system, the emergence and development of relationships between elements. It is associated with centralization, in which one subsystem plays the main dominant role.

1.3 Progressive isolation... The striving of the system towards a state with more and more independent elements. It is the opposite of progressive systematization. (The desire of the system to reduce the independence of the elements, i.e. to greater integrity)

1.4 Additivity... Independence, isolation. Real developing systems are located between two extreme states - absolute integrity and additivity.

2) Hierarchical ordering patterns

It has been proven from biological examples that a higher level of the hierarchy has a directional effect on the lower level. The main features of hierarchical ordering can be distinguished:

A) each level of the hierarchy has a complex relationship with higher and lower levels, i.e. possesses the property of two-faced Janus. The face directed towards the lower level has the character of the whole, since the nature of the system, and the face directed to the top of a higher level manifests the properties of a dependent part.

B) the regularity of communication. Any system forms a unity with the environment. The system is not isolated from other systems, it is connected by many communications, with the environment.

3) Regularities of the systems feasibility

1.1 Equifinality pattern... Characterizes the limiting capabilities of the system

1.2 Ezhby's law of necessary diversity... The variety of methods should be greater than the variety of systems.

1.3 The pattern of potential efficiency... Fleischmann's potential feasibility explains the feasibility of the system. Fleischman connected the complexity of the structure of the system with the complexity of its behavior and proposed quantitative characteristics of the limiting laws of reliability and noise immunity, on the basis of which it is possible to obtain quantitative characteristics of the system's feasibility. (When system resources are depleted)

4) Patterns of systems development

1.1 The pattern of historicity... He says that any system not only arises, functions, develops, but also perishes.

1.2 Self-organization pattern... It characterizes the ability of complex systems to adapt to changing conditions to change, if necessary, their structure and at the same time maintain their stability. Self-organization- the formation of a spatial, temporal organization at the expense of the internal resources of the system as a result of goal-setting interactions of the system. (Enterprise-bankruptcy-change of structure at the expense of its own resource-stable functioning). It can be observed in both living and nonliving systems. (The history of the development of computers is an example of the development of self-organization. From the first generation of ncomputers in the 50s, electronic lamps with a speed of 10 4 operations per second to modern computers with a speed of 10 12 operations per second.) , disasters, epidemics, etc.)

REGULARITIES OF PURPOSE FORMATION

The generalization of the results of research on the processes of goal setting made it possible to formulate general patterns of using the goal. Dependence of the way of presenting the goal on the stage of cognition of the object. Objectives can be presented in the form of various structures. Those. the global goal should be disaggregated into subgoals with the subsequent analysis of these subgoals. Conclusion: any global goal should be decomposed, and further analysis should be performed on individual subgoals. The goals depend on external and internal factors. It is also necessary to take into account the regularity of the formation of hierarchical structures of goals, which are represented in the form of a tree of goals, at the root of which there is a global goal, and below are local ones, i.e. dependent subgoals.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE PATTERN PROCEDURE

Pattern from English. NS ablon, sight.

This is the first system analysis technique built on the basis of the goal tree. Initiator - Vice President of the firm rent engaged in the development of military doctrines, recommendations on new types of weapons systems, the study of the military and scientific potential of the enemy. The purpose of the pattern was to prepare and implement the US military superiority over the entire world. The developers were tasked with tying together the military and scientific plans of the United States. A bureau was created to assist the President of the United States in preparing decisions using scientific information methods.

Principal structure of the pattern:

Condition and development factors

Science and technology development forecast

Scenario

computer

To form and assess the tree of goals, scenarios were developed for the normative forecast) and the forecast for the development of science and technology (survey forecast. The development group consisted of 15 specialists who have the right to consult with any employee of the company and have access to any documents.

The first pattern model required processing more than 160 intermediate solutions. Three were identified as national targets. 4 directions of activity, prepared 42 tasks and 65 military programs.

The practice of using the system has shown that it allows you to distribute the importance of a huge amount of data on which decisions are based. The pattern system was a tool for analyzing difficult-to-solve problems with a large initial uncertainty.

SYNERGY APPROACH

Synergetics is called the theory of self-organization. The synergistic approach includes the following principles:

1) Science deals with systems of different levels of organization. The connection between them is through chaos.

2) When systems are combined - the whole is not equal to the sum of the parts.

3) When passing from one state of the system to another, the systems behave in the same way.

4) Systems are always open and exchange energy with the environment.

5) In non-equilibrium conditions, the independence of the elements gives way to corporate behavior

6) In the distance of equilibrium, the consistency of the behavior of the elements increases (In equilibrium, the molecule sees only its neighbors, out of equilibrium the whole system is the work of the brain)

7) Under conditions far from equilibrium, bifurcation mechanisms operate in systems. This is the presence of points of bifurcation and continuation of development. System development options are almost unpredictable.

Ashby drew attention to the ultimate feasibility and formulated the law of necessary diversity. The decision-maker is faced with some problem, the solution of which is not obvious to him. In this case, there is a variety possible solutions... The task of the decision maker is to minimize the difference between all possible decisions and all conceivable decisions. Ashby proved a theorem, on the basis of which the following conclusion is formulated: if there is a variety of possible solutions V d and there is a set of all conceivable values ​​of V n, then the difference V n -V d can be reduced only by increasing V d. Only the variety n can be reduced by the variety in d, i.e. only diversity can destroy diversity. This means that by creating an information system that can cope with solving a problem, and has a certain complexity, it is necessary to ensure that the system we develop has an even greater variety (knowledge of methods for solving a problem) than the variety of a specific problem. As applied to ACS, the law of required diversity is formulated as follows: the diversity of the control system must be greater than or equal to the diversity of the controlled object.

DECISION MATRIX TECHNIQUE

Matrices are used to assess how the system is implemented. (two-dimensional q nm), where a1, a2, an implementation methods from goals B1, B2, Bn. Q ij characterizes the probability of achieving subgoal b j using the method a i. The value of Q ij is determined by expert judgment.

1) A group of experts is selected (5-10 people), who are isolated from each other.

2) Find the median of the responses received

3) The upper and lower quartels are counted (min + 1 \ 2 medmans) (max-1 \ 2 medians)

4) The experts' answers are revealed that fall outside the lower and upper quartels.

5) Their rationale is distributed to other experts. 2) 3) 4)

PURPOSE EDUCATION

Goal setting is a direction of systems analysis, which deals with the study of the process of formulating and analyzing goals in different systems... This term was introduced in the second half of the 20th century. The practical task of this direction is the development of principles for the creation and implementation of goal-setting subsystems. These subsystems are engaged in the study of the relationship between the goals of various industries with national goals, the goals of the region and the development of the principles of planning indicators on this basis. Purpose - various shades are embedded: from ideal aspirations to specific goals within a certain interval of time. A matrix or tree structure can be used to describe targets.

REGULARITIES OF PURPOSE FORMATION:

1) The dependence of the presentation of the goals of the object and on time.

2) Dependence of the goal on external and internal factors. The goal is influenced by external requirements, motives and internal factors (needs)

3) The possibility and necessity of reducing the task to a global goal, to the task of its structuring. Any task of formulating a generalized tree should be reduced to the task of structuring or decomposing goals.

The goal is a previously conceivable result of the conscious activity of a person or a group of people. The goal tree implies the formation of a hierarchical structure, obtained by decomposing the goal into general subgoals for further detailed analysis. The branches of the goal tree are also called directions, programs, tasks.

SELF-ORGANIZATION OF SYSTEMS

Self-organization is the formation of a spatial temporal informational or functional organization, more precisely, the desire for organization, for the formation of a new structure at the expense of the internal resources of the system. A system is self-organizing if it acquires a spatial, temporal, informational or functional structure without purposeful influence from outside.

Self-organization occurs in complex open systems. For example, human society develops in a spiral, a cyclical transition from the Little Ice Age to gradual warming, while the number of extreme natural events is increasing.

SYNERGETICS

Coordinated, collaborative, acting. This is a scientific direction that studies the connections between the elements of the structure (subsystems) that are formed in the open. In such systems, a consistent behavior of subsystems is observed, as a result of which the degree of their ordering increases, i.e. the degree of self-organization increases. Synergy means the excess of the total result of the sum of its constituent factors.

CONCEPTS AND TYPES OF MODEL

Model is an abstract description of the system, the level of detail of which is determined by the researcher.

Formalized representation of the object of research from the point of view of the goal. A model is a conceivable or materially representable object, which, in the process of studying, replaces the original object, retaining some of its typical features.

Types of models:

1) Static

2) Dynamic

3) Discrete

4) Continuous

5) Deterministic

6) Stochostics

7) Based on differential equations

8) Based on integral equations

9) Linear

10) Non-linear

11) Stationary (parameters do not change over time)

12) Not stationary

Principles that the model must satisfy:

A) adequacy. Fit of the model to the objectives of the study

B) the correspondence of the model to the problem being solved. Attempts to create a universal model for solving a large number of different problems are inappropriate.

C) simplification while maintaining the essential properties of the system

D) all models are approximate, therefore it is required to find a compromise between the required accuracy of the model and the complexity of the model

E) multivariance of the model implementation, i.e. a variety of implementations of the same model method.

E) use a block structure for complex models

The order of using the model.

Select the required complexity of the model, taking into account the adequacy

Model development (mathematical, imitation)

Model research

Checking the reliability of the model parameters and their influence on the result

SYSTEM APPROACH IN SYSTEM MANAGEMENT

The systems approach is a comprehensive approach that focuses not only on the enterprise itself, but also on its environment. Today, a systematic approach is the scientific basis of a modern manager. Any enterprise is characterized by a number of patterns:

Strengthening the mutual influence, interdependence, interaction of all the constituent parts of modern society

Today economic, political, social and spiritual spheres are closely intertwined. The state and society, production and science, culture and everyday life interact more closely. Those. our society is becoming more integrated, but not devoid of contradictions.

Dynamism, competition forces enterprises to develop new goods and services, and to improve their quality, attracting the achievements of science.

Complex social structures. Due to the growing interdependence of processes, and intensified by the dynamism of society. This gives rise to difficulties in her knowledge of predicting management.

The external environment of the enterprise has its own harsh conditions for building its internal environment.

STRUCTURE OF SYSTEM ANALYSIS

The physical system that includes the system. At the next stage, this system is decomposed, then the decomposed system is analyzed. Further, the synthesis of the Decomposed system and at the end a new physical system is proposed.

Formation of a general view of the system:

1) Identification of the main functions, properties, and goals of the system

2) Identification of the main functions and parts (modules in the system)

3) Identification of the main processes in the system

4) Identification of the main elements of a non-system with which the studied system is connected.

5) Revealing uncertainties and accidents, influence on the system.

6) Revealing the structure of the hierarchy

7) Identification of all elements and connections

8) Accounting for changes and uncertainties in the system

9) Undesirable change in the properties of the system, aging

10) Research of functions and processes in the system in order to control them

NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Project expert is designed to model any business process.

Using the IDEF0 methodology allows you to describe any enterprise, process, system using diagrams.

The use of special programs such as matlab for modeling control systems, fuzzy systems, neural networks, etc.

Application for production and development large systems CALS standard that regulates the economic costs at each stage of development or production of the system with the possibility of optimization.

→

Lecture 2: System properties. System classification

System properties.

So, the state of the system is the set of essential properties that the system possesses at each moment of time.

A property is understood as the side of an object that determines its difference from or similarity to other objects and manifests itself when interacting with other objects.

A characteristic is something that reflects a certain property of the system.

What properties of systems are known.

From the definition of "system" it follows that the main property of the system is integrity, unity, achieved through certain interrelationships and interactions of system elements and manifested in the emergence of new properties that the system elements do not possess. This property emergence(from English emerge - to arise, to appear).

1. Emergence - the degree of irreducibility of the properties of the system to the properties of the elements of which it consists.
2. Emergence is a property of systems that causes the emergence of new properties and qualities that are not inherent in the elements that make up the system.

Emergence is the opposite of reductionism, which claims that the whole can be studied by dismembering it into parts and then, defining their properties, to determine the properties of the whole.

The property of the system's integrity is close to the property of emergence. However, they cannot be identified.

Integrity system means that each element of the system contributes to the implementation of the target function of the system.

Integrity and emergence are the integrative properties of the system.

The presence of integrative properties is one of the most important features of the system. Integrity is manifested in the fact that the system has its own regularity of functionality, its own purpose.

Organization- a complex property of systems, consisting in the presence of structure and functioning (behavior). An indispensable accessory of systems is their components, precisely those structural formations of which the whole consists and without which it is not possible.

Functionality- this is the manifestation of certain properties (functions) when interacting with the external environment. Here, the goal (purpose of the system) is determined as the desired end result.

Structurality- this is the ordering of the system, a certain set and arrangement of elements with connections between them. There is a relationship between the function and structure of the system, as between the philosophical categories of content and form. A change in content (functions) entails a change in form (structure), but also vice versa.

An important property of the system is the presence of behavior - action, change, functioning, etc.

It is believed that this behavior of the system is related to the environment (environment), i.e. with other systems with which it comes into contact or enters into certain relationships.

The process of purposeful change in time of the state of the system is called behavior... Unlike control, when a change in the state of the system is achieved due to external influences, the behavior is implemented exclusively by the system itself, based on its own goals.

The behavior of each system is explained by the structure of the systems of the lowest order, of which the this system, and the presence of signs of balance (homeostasis). In accordance with the sign of equilibrium, the system has a certain state (states) that are preferable for it. Therefore, the behavior of systems is described in terms of the restoration of these states when they are disturbed as a result of changes in the environment.

Another property is the property of growth (development). Development can be viewed as a constituent part of behavior (and the most important one).

One of the primary, and, therefore, fundamental attributes of the system approach is the inadmissibility of considering an object outside of it. development, which is understood as an irreversible, directed, regular change in matter and consciousness. As a result, a new quality or state of the object arises. The identification (maybe not quite strict) of the terms "development" and "motion" allows one to express in such a sense that the existence of matter, in this case, a system, is inconceivable outside of development. It is naive to imagine the development taking place spontaneously. In the vast multitude of processes that at first glance seem to be something like Brownian (random, chaotic) movement, with close attention and study, at first, the outlines of tendencies appear, and then rather stable regularities. These laws by their nature act objectively, i.e. do not depend on whether we want their manifestation or not. Ignorance of the laws and patterns of development is wandering in the dark.

Who does not know which harbor he is sailing to, there is no tailwind for that

The behavior of the system is determined by the nature of the reaction to external influences.

The fundamental property of the systems is steadiness, i.e. the ability of the system to withstand external disturbances. The lifespan of the system depends on it.

Simple systems have passive forms of stability: strength, balance, adjustability, homeostasis. And for complex, active forms are decisive: reliability, survivability and adaptability.

If the listed forms of stability of simple systems (except for strength) concern their behavior, then the defining form of stability of complex systems is mainly structural in nature.

Reliability- the property of preserving the structure of systems, despite the death of its individual elements by means of their replacement or duplication, and vitality- as active suppression of harmful qualities. Thus, reliability is a more passive form than survivability.

Adaptability- the property to change behavior or structure in order to preserve, improve or acquire new qualities in the face of changes in the external environment. A prerequisite the ability to adapt is the presence of feedbacks.

Any real system exists in the environment. The connection between them is so close that it becomes difficult to determine the border between them. Therefore, the separation of the system from the environment is associated with one degree or another of idealization.

Two aspects of interaction can be distinguished:

• in many cases it takes on the character of an exchange between the system and the environment (matter, energy, information);
• the environment is usually a source of uncertainty for systems.

The influence of the environment can be passive or active (antagonistic, purposefully opposing the system).

Therefore, in the general case, the environment should be considered not only indifferent, but also antagonistic in relation to the system under study.

Rice. - System classification

Basis (criterion) of classification	System classes
On interaction with the external environment	Open Closed Combined
By structure	Simple Complex Large
By the nature of the functions	Specialized Multifunctional (universal)
By the nature of development	Stable Developing
By the degree of organization	Well organized Poorly organized (diffuse)
By the complexity of behavior	Automatic Decisive Self-organizing Foreseeing Evolving
By the nature of the connection between the elements	Deterministic Stochastic
By the nature of the management structure	Centralized Decentralized
By appointment	Producers Managers Serving

Classification the division into classes according to the most essential features is called. A class is understood as a set of objects that have some features of commonality. A feature (or a set of features) is the basis (criterion) of classification.

The system can be characterized by one or more features and, accordingly, it can be found a place in various classifications, each of which can be useful in choosing a research methodology. Usually, the goal of classification is to limit the choice of approaches to displaying systems, to develop a description language suitable for the corresponding class.

Real systems are divided into natural (natural systems) and artificial (anthropogenic).

Natural systems: systems of inanimate (physical, chemical) and living (biological) nature.

Artificial systems: created by humanity for their own needs or formed as a result of purposeful efforts.

Artificial are divided into technical (technical and economic) and social (public).

The technical system is designed and manufactured by man for specific purposes.

Social systems include various systems of human society.

Isolation of systems consisting of only one technical devices almost always conditional, since they are not able to develop their state. These systems act as parts of larger ones, including people - organizational and technical systems.

An organizational system, for the effective functioning of which an essential factor is the way of organizing the interaction of people with a technical subsystem, is called a man-machine system.

Examples of human-machine systems: car - driver; airplane - pilot; Computer - user, etc.

Thus, technical systems are understood as a single constructive set of interconnected and interacting objects, intended for purposeful actions with the task of achieving a given result in the process of functioning.

The distinguishing features of technical systems in comparison with an arbitrary set of objects or in comparison with individual elements are constructiveness (practical feasibility of relations between elements), orientation and interconnectedness of constituent elements and purposefulness.

In order for the system to be resistant to external influences, it must have a stable structure. The choice of structure practically determines the technical appearance of both the entire system and its subsystems and elements. The question of the expediency of using a particular structure should be decided based on the specific purpose of the system. The structure also determines the ability of the system to redistribute functions in the event of complete or partial withdrawal of individual elements, and, consequently, the reliability and survivability of the system with the given characteristics of its elements.

Abstract systems are the result of the reflection of reality (real systems) in the human brain.

Their mood is a necessary step in ensuring effective human interaction with the outside world. Abstract (ideal) systems are objective in their source of origin, since their primary source is objectively existing reality.

Abstract systems are divided into direct display systems (reflecting certain aspects of real systems) and generalizing (generalizing) display systems. The former include mathematical and heuristic models, and the latter include conceptual systems (theories of methodological construction) and languages.

On the basis of the concept of the external environment, systems are divided into: open, closed (closed, isolated) and combined. The division of systems into open and closed is associated with their characteristic features: the ability to preserve properties in the presence of external influences. If the system is insensitive to external influences, it can be considered closed. Otherwise, open.

An open system is a system that interacts with the environment. All real systems are open source. An open system is part of a more general system or multiple systems. If we isolate the system under consideration from this formation, then the rest is its environment.

An open system is connected with the environment by certain communications, that is, by a network of external connections of the system. The allocation of external relations and the description of the mechanisms of interaction "system-environment" is the central task of the theory of open systems. Consideration of open systems allows you to expand the concept of the structure of the system. For open systems, it includes not only internal connections between elements, but also external connections with the environment. When describing the structure, external communication channels are tried to be divided into input (through which the environment affects the system) and output (vice versa). The collection of elements of these channels belonging to own system are called the input and output poles of the system. In open systems, at least one element has a connection with the external environment, at least one input pole and one output pole, by which it is connected with the external environment.

For each system, communications with all subordinate subsystems and between the latter are internal, and all others are external. The connections between systems and the external environment, as well as between the elements of the system, are, as a rule, directional.

It is important to emphasize that in any real system, due to the laws of dialectics about the universal connection of phenomena, the number of all interconnections is huge, so that it is impossible to take into account and research absolutely all connections, therefore their number is artificially limited. At the same time, it is impractical to take into account all possible connections, since among them there are many insignificant ones that practically do not affect the functioning of the system and the number of solutions obtained (from the point of view of the problems being solved). If a change in the characteristics of a connection, its exclusion (complete rupture) lead to a significant deterioration in the operation of the system, a decrease in efficiency, then such a connection is essential. One of the most important tasks of the researcher is to identify the systems that are essential for consideration in the conditions of the communication problem being solved and to separate them from the insignificant ones. Due to the fact that the input and output poles of the system cannot always be clearly distinguished, one has to resort to a certain idealization of actions. The greatest idealization takes place when considering a closed system.

A closed system is a system that does not interact with the environment or interacts with the environment in a strictly defined way. In the first case, it is assumed that the system has no input poles, and in the second, that there are input poles, but the influence of the environment is unchanged and is fully (in advance) known. Obviously, under the last assumption, these influences can be attributed to the system itself, and it can be considered as closed. For a closed system, any of its elements has connections only with the elements of the system itself.

Of course, closed systems represent some abstraction of the real situation, since, strictly speaking, isolated systems do not exist. However, it is obvious that the simplification of the description of the system, consists in the rejection of external relations, can lead to useful results, to simplify the study of the system. All real systems are closely or weakly connected with the external environment - open. If a temporary break or change in characteristic external connections does not cause deviations in the functioning of the system beyond the predetermined limits, then the system is weakly connected with the external environment. Otherwise, it is cramped.

Combined systems contain open and closed subsystems. The presence of combined systems indicates a complex combination of open and closed subsystems.

Depending on the structure and space-time properties, systems are divided into simple, complex and large.

Simple - systems that do not have branched structures, consisting of a small number of interconnections and a small number of elements. Such elements serve to perform the simplest functions; hierarchical levels cannot be distinguished in them. A distinctive feature of simple systems is the determinism (clear certainty) of the nomenclature, the number of elements and connections both within the system and with the environment.

Complex - characterized by a large number elements and internal connections, their heterogeneity and different quality, structural diversity, perform a complex function or a number of functions. The components of complex systems can be viewed as subsystems, each of which can be detailed with even simpler subsystems, etc. until the item is received.

Definition N1: a system is called complex (from an epistemological standpoint) if its cognition requires the joint involvement of many models of theories, and in some cases many scientific disciplines, as well as taking into account the uncertainty of a probabilistic and improbable nature. The most characteristic manifestation of this definition is multi-model.

Model- some system, the study of which serves as a means for obtaining information about another system. This is a description of systems (mathematical, verbal, etc.) reflecting a certain group of its properties.

Definition N2: a system is called complex if in reality the signs of its complexity are clearly (significantly) manifested. Namely:

1. structural complexity - is determined by the number of system elements, the number and variety of types of connections between them, the number of hierarchical levels and the total number of subsystems in the system. The following types of relationships are considered the main types: structural (including hierarchical), functional, causal (cause-and-effect), informational, space-time;
2. the complexity of functioning (behavior) is determined by the characteristics of the set of states, the rules of transition from state to state, the impact of the system on the environment and the environment on the system, the degree of uncertainty of the listed characteristics and rules;
3. the complexity of the choice of behavior - in multi-alternative situations, when the choice of behavior is determined by the goal of the system, the flexibility of reactions to previously unknown environmental influences;
4. the complexity of development - determined by the characteristics of evolutionary or discontinuous processes.

Naturally, all signs are considered interrelated. Hierarchical structure is a characteristic feature of complex systems, while the levels of the hierarchy can be both homogeneous and heterogeneous. Complex systems are characterized by such factors as the inability to predict their behavior, that is, poorly predictability, their secrecy, and various states.

Complex systems can be subdivided into the following factorial subsystems:

1. decisive, which makes global decisions in interaction with the external environment and distributes local tasks among all other subsystems;
2. informational, which ensures the collection, processing and transmission of information necessary for making global decisions and performing local tasks;
3. managing director for the implementation of global solutions;
4. homeostasis, maintaining dynamic balance within systems and regulating the flows of energy and matter in subsystems;
5. adaptive, gaining experience in the learning process to improve the structure and functions of the system.

A large system is a system that is not observed simultaneously from the position of one observer in time or space, for which the spatial factor is essential, the number of subsystems of which is very large, and the composition is heterogeneous.

The system can be large or complex. Complex systems are united by a more extensive group of systems, that is, large - a subclass of complex systems.

Decomposition and aggregation procedures are fundamental in the analysis and synthesis of large and complex systems.

Decomposition is the division of systems into parts, followed by independent consideration of individual parts.

It is obvious that decomposition is a concept associated with the model, since the system itself cannot be dismembered without violating its properties. At the modeling level, disparate connections will be replaced by equivalents, respectively, or the system model is built in such a way that its decomposition into separate parts turns out to be natural.

When applied to large and complex systems, decomposition is a powerful research tool.

Aggregation is the opposite of decomposition. In the process of research, it becomes necessary to combine the elements of the system in order to consider it from a more general point of view.

Decomposition and aggregation are two opposite sides of the approach to considering large and complex systems, used in dialectical unity.

Systems for which the state of the system is uniquely determined by the initial values ​​and can be predicted for any subsequent moment in time are called deterministic.

Stochastic systems are systems in which changes are random. Under random influences, the data on the state of the system is insufficient to predict at a later point in time.

By the degree of organization: well organized, poorly organized (diffuse).

To represent the analyzed object or process in the form of a well-organized system means to determine the elements of the system, their interconnection, the rules for combining into larger components. The problematic situation can be described in the form of a mathematical expression. The solution of the problem when it is presented in the form of a well-organized system is carried out by analytical methods of a formalized representation of the system.

Examples of well-organized systems: solar system describing the most significant patterns of planetary motion around the Sun; display of an atom in the form of a planetary system consisting of a nucleus and electrons; job description of a complex electronic device using a system of equations that takes into account the peculiarities of its operating conditions (the presence of noise, instability of power supplies, etc.).

The description of an object in the form of a well-organized system is used in cases when it is possible to offer a deterministic description and experimentally prove the legitimacy of its application, the adequacy of the model to the real process. Attempts to apply a class of well-organized systems to represent complex multicomponent objects or multicriteria problems are poorly successful: they require unacceptably large amounts of time, are practically unrealizable, and are inadequate to the applied models.

Poorly organized systems. When an object is represented as a poorly organized or diffuse system, the task is not set to determine all the components taken into account, their properties and connections between them and the goals of the system. The system is characterized by a certain set of macroparameters and regularities, which are not based on the study of the entire object or class of phenomena, but on the basis of a selection of components, which characterize the object or process under study, determined with the help of some rules. On the basis of such a sample study, characteristics or patterns (statistical, economic) are obtained and extended to the entire system as a whole. In this case, appropriate reservations are made. For example, when obtaining statistical regularities, they are extended to the behavior of the entire system with a certain confidence level.

The approach to displaying objects in the form of diffuse systems is widely used in: describing queuing systems, determining the number of staff at enterprises and institutions, studying documentary information flows in control systems, etc.

From the point of view of the nature of the functions, special, multifunctional, and universal systems are distinguished.

For special systems characterized by the uniqueness of the purpose and narrow professional specialization of the service personnel (relatively uncomplicated).

Multifunctional systems make it possible to implement several functions on the same structure. Example: a production system that provides the release of various products within a certain nomenclature.

For universal systems: many actions are implemented on the same structure, however, the composition of functions in terms of type and quantity is less homogeneous (less defined). For example, a harvester.

By the nature of the development of the 2nd class of systems: stable and developing.

In a stable system, the structure and functions practically do not change during the entire period of its existence, and, as a rule, the quality of functioning of stable systems only deteriorates as their elements wear out. Remedial interventions can usually only slow the rate of deterioration.

An excellent feature of developing systems is that over time, their structure and functions acquire significant changes. The functions of the system are more permanent, although they often change. Only their purpose remains practically unchanged. Developing systems are more complex.

In order of increasing complexity of behavior: automatic, decisive, self-organizing, anticipating, transforming.

Automatic: they unambiguously respond to a limited set of external influences, their internal organization is adapted to the transition to an equilibrium state when withdrawn from it (homeostasis).

Decisive: have constant criteria for distinguishing their constant response to broad classes of external influences. Constancy internal structure supported by the replacement of failed elements.

Self-organizing: they have flexible criteria for distinguishing and flexible reactions to external influences, adapting to various types of influences. The stability of the internal structure of the higher forms of such systems is ensured by constant self-reproduction.

Self-organizing systems have the features of diffuse systems: stochastic behavior, nonstationarity of individual parameters and processes. Added to this are signs such as unpredictable behavior; the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions, to change the structure when the system interacts with the environment, while maintaining the properties of integrity; ability to shape possible options behavior and choose the best one, etc. Sometimes this class is divided into subclasses, highlighting adaptive or self-adaptive systems, self-healing, self-reproducing and other subclasses corresponding to various properties of developing systems.

Examples: biological organizations, collective behavior of people, organization of management at the level of an enterprise, industry, state as a whole, i.e. in those systems where there is necessarily a human factor.

If stability in its complexity begins to surpass the complex influences of the external world, these are predictive systems: it can predict the further course of interaction.

Transforming ones are imaginary complex systems at the highest level of complexity, not bound by the constancy of existing carriers. They can change material carriers while maintaining their individuality. Examples of such systems are not yet known to science.

The system can be divided into types according to the characteristics of the structure of their construction and the importance of the role that individual constituent parts play in them in comparison with the roles of other parts.

In some systems, one of the parts may have a dominant role (its significance >> (symbol of the attitude of "significant superiority") the significance of other parts). Such a component will act as the central one that determines the functioning of the entire system. Such systems are called centralized.

In other systems, all of their constituent components are approximately equally significant. Structurally, they are not located around some centralized component, but are interconnected sequentially or in parallel and have approximately the same values ​​for the functioning of the system. These are decentralized systems.

Systems can be classified by function. Among the technical and organizational systems, there are: producing, managing, serving.

Manufacturing systems implement the processes of obtaining certain products or services. They, in turn, are divided into material-energy ones, in which the transformation of the natural environment or raw materials into the final product of a material or energy nature is carried out, or the transportation of such products; and informational - for the collection, transmission and transformation of information and the provision of information services.

The purpose of the control systems is to organize and control material-energy and information processes.

Service systems are concerned with maintaining the specified limits of the operability of the production and control systems.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Names of color in Indo-European languages: Systemic and historical analysis / Ed. A.P. Vasilevich. - M .: Lenand, 2016 .-- 320 p.
2. Community Informatics: Systems Analysis and Tools / Ed. IN AND. Tishchenko. - M .: Krasand, 2010 .-- 280 p.
3. Proceedings of ISA RAS: Dynamical systems. Scientometrics and Science Management. Methodological problems of systems analysis. Systems analysis in medicine and biology. Information technology / Ed. S.V. Emelyanov. - M .: Lenand, 2015 .-- 116 p.
4. Names of color in Indo-European languages: Systemic and historical analysis / Ed. A.P. Vasilevich. - M .: Lenand, 2016 .-- 320 p.
5. Agafonov, V.A. System analysis in strategic management / V.A. Agafonov. - M .: Rusays, 2016 .-- 48 p.
6. Andreychikov, A.V. System analysis and synthesis of strategic decisions in innovation: Models of multicriteria analysis of the activities of innovative organizations / A.V. Andreychikov, O. N. Andreychikova. - M .: KD Librokom, 2013 .-- 360 p.
7. Andreychikov, A.V. System analysis and synthesis of strategic decisions in innovation: Fundamentals of strategic innovation management and marketing / A.V. Andreychikov, O. N. Andreychikova. - M .: KD Librokom, 2018 .-- 248 p.
8. Andreychikov, A.V. System analysis and synthesis of strategic decisions in innovation / A.V. Andreychikov, O. N. Andreychikova. - M .: KD Librokom, 2013 .-- 304 p.
9. Andreychikov, A.V. System analysis and synthesis of strategic decisions in innovation / A.V. Andreychikov, O. N. Andreychikova. - M .: KD Librokom, 2013 .-- 248 p.
10. Andreychikov, A.V. System analysis and synthesis of strategic decisions in innovation: Formation and decision-making in educational institutions / A.V. Andreychikov, O. N. Andreychikova. - M .: Lenand, 2015 .-- 448 p.
11. Andreychikov, A.V. System analysis and synthesis of strategic decisions in innovation: Conceptual design of innovative systems / A.V. Andreychikov, O. N. Andreychikova. - M .: Lenand, 2014 .-- 432 p.
12. Andreychikov, A.V. Strategic management in innovative organizations. System analysis and decision making: Textbook / A.V. Andreychikov, O. N. Andreychikova. - M .: University textbook, SRC Infra-M, 2013 .-- 396 p.
13. Andreychikov, A.V. System analysis and synthesis of strategic decisions in innovation: Mathematical, heuristic and intellectual methods of system analysis and synthesis of innovations / A.V. Andreychikov, O. N. Andreychikova. - M .: Lenand, 2015 .-- 306 p.
14. Andreychikov, A.V. System analysis and synthesis of strategic decisions in innovation: Mathematical, heuristic and intellectual methods of system analysis and synthesis in / A.V. Andreychikov, O. N. Andreychikova. - M .: Lenand, 2015 .-- 306 p.
15. Andreychikov, A.V. System analysis and synthesis of strategic decisions in innovation: Fundamentals of strategic innovation management and marketing: Tutorial/ A.V. Andreychikov, O. N. Andreychikova. - M .: KD Librokom, 2013 .-- 248 p.
16. Andreychikov, A.V. System analysis and synthesis of strategic decisions in innovation: Fundamentals of strategic innovation management and marketing / A.V. Andreychikov, O. N. Andreychikova. - M .: KD Librokom, 2012 .-- 248 p.
17. Andreychikov, A.V. System analysis and synthesis of strategic decisions in innovation: Conceptual design of innovative systems: Textbook / A.V. Andreychikov, O. N. Andreychikova. - M .: Lenand, 2014 .-- 432 p.
18. Antonov, A.V. System analysis: Textbook for universities / A.V. Antonov. - M .: Higher school, 2008 .-- 454 p.
19. Antonov, A.V. System analysis / A.V. Antonov. - M .: Higher school, 2008 .-- 454 p.
20. Antonov, A.V. System analysis: Uch. / A.V. Antonov. - M .: Infra-M, 2016 .-- 158 p.
21. Anfilatov, V.S. System analysis in management: Textbook / V.S. Anfilatov, A.A. Emelyanov, A.A. Kukushkin. - M .: Finance and statistics, 2009. - 368 p.
22. Anfilatov, V.S. System analysis in management / V.S. Anfilatov. - M .: Finance and statistics, 2009. - 368 p.
23. Aslanov, M. System analysis and decision-making in the activities of institutions of the real sector of the economy, communications and transport / M. Aslanov, A. Shatrakov. - M .: Economics, 2010 .-- 406 p.
24. Barinov, V.A. Systems theory and systems analysis in the management of organizations: Handbook: Textbook / V.A. Barinov, L.S. Bolotov; Ed. V.N. Volkova, A.A. Emelyanov. - M .: Finance and statistics, Infra-M, 2012 .-- 848 p.
25. Barinov, V.A. Systems theory and systems analysis in the management of organizations: Handbook / V.A. Barinov, L.S. Bolotov. - M .: Finance and statistics, 2012 .-- 848 p.
26. Belov, P.G. Risk management, system analysis and modeling in 3 hours. Part 1: Textbook and workshop for undergraduate and graduate programs / P.G. Belov. - Lyubertsy: Yurayt, 2016 .-- 211 p.
27. Belov, P.G. Risk management, system analysis and modeling in 3 hours. Part 2: Textbook and workshop for undergraduate and graduate programs / P.G. Belov. - Lyubertsy: Yurayt, 2016 .-- 250 p.
28. Belov, P.G. Risk management, system analysis and modeling in 3 hours. Part 3: Textbook and workshop for undergraduate and graduate programs / P.G. Belov. - Lyubertsy: Yurayt, 2016 .-- 272 p.
29. Brodetsky, G.L. Systems analysis in logistics. Choice in the face of uncertainty: Textbook / G.L. Brodetsky. - M .: Academy, 2014 .-- 240 p.
30. Brodetsky, G.L. Systems analysis in logistics. Choice with many criteria: Textbook / G.L. Brodetsky. - M .: Academia, 2015 .-- 224 p.
31. Brodetsky, G.L. Systems analysis in logistics. Choice with many criteria: Textbook / G.L. Brodetsky. - M .: Academy, 2012 .-- 208 p.
32. Brodetsky, G.L. Systems analysis in logistics. Choice in the face of uncertainty: Textbook / G.L. Brodetsky. - M .: Academia, 2011 .-- 16 p.
33. Bulygina, O. V. System analysis in exercise .: Textbook / O.V. Bulygina, A.A. Emelyanov, N.Z. Emelyanov. - M .: Forum, 2018 .-- 16 p.
34. Wallerstein, I. World-System Analysis: An Introduction. Per. from English / I. Wallerstein. - M .: Lenand, 2018 .-- 304 p.
35. Vdovin, V.M. Systems theory and systems analysis: A textbook for bachelors / V.M. Vdovin, L.E. Surkov, V.A. Valentinov. - M .: Dashkov and K, 2013 .-- 644 p.
36. Vdovin, V.M. Systems theory and systems analysis: A textbook for bachelors / V.M. Vdovin, L.E. Surkov and others - M .: Dashkov and K, 2016 .-- 644 p.
37. Vdovin, V.M. Systems theory and systems analysis: A textbook for bachelors / V.M. Vdovin, L.E. Surkov. - M .: Dashkov and K, 2016 .-- 644 p.
38. Vdovin, V.M. Systems theory and systems analysis: A textbook for bachelors / V.M. Vdovin, L.E. Surkov. - M .: Dashkov and K, 2014 .-- 644 p.
39. Vikhnin, A.G. Storming the fourth megaproject: who will be the new Bill Gates? System analysis and choice of strategy / A.G. Vikhnin, N.Z. Sakipov. - M .: Dialog-MEPhI, 2008 .-- 288 p.
40. Volkova, V.N. System analysis of information systems: Textbook / V.N. Volkova. - SPb .: Lan, 2016 .-- 336 p.
41. Volkova, V.N. Systems Theory and Systems Analysis: A Textbook for Academic Bachelor's Degree / V.N. Volkova, A.A. Denisov. - Lyubertsy: Yurayt, 2016 .-- 462 p.
42. Volkova, V.N. Systems theory and systems analysis: A textbook for bachelors / V.N. Volkova, A.A. Denisov. - M .: Yurayt, 2013 .-- 616 p.
43. Gromova, E., N. System analysis of information systems: textbook / E. N. Gromova. - SPb .: Lan, 2016 .-- 336 p.
44. Danelyan, T. Ya. Systems theory and systems analysis: Educational-methodical complex / T.Ya. Danelian. - M .: Lenand, 2016 .-- 360 p.
45. Dmitrieva, N.V. Systemic electrophysiology: System analysis of electrophysiological processes / N.V. Dmitrieva. - M .: KD Librokom, 2015 .-- 252 p.
46. ​​Drohobytsky, I.N. System analysis in economics: Textbook / I.N. Drohobytsky. - M .: Unity, 2018 .-- 784 p.
47. Drogobytsky, I.N. System analysis in economics: Textbook / I.N. Drohobytsky. - M .: Unity, 2016 .-- 423 p.
48. Drogobytsky, I.N. System analysis in economics / I.N. Drohobytsky. - M .: Finance and statistics, 2009. - 512 p.
49. Drogobytsky, I.N. System analysis in economics: Textbook / I.N. Drohobytsky. - M .: Unity, 2013 .-- 423 p.
50. Drogobytsky, I.N. System analysis in economics: A textbook for university students / I.N. Drohobytsky. - M .: Unity-Dana, 2013 .-- 423 p.
51. Drohobytsky, I.N. System analysis in economics: A textbook for university students / I.N. Drohobytsky. - M .: Unity-Dana, 2012 .-- 423 p.
52. Zagranovskaya, A.V. System analysis of the organization's activities. Workshop: Study guide 2019 / A.V. Zagranovskaya. - SPb .: Lan, 2019 .-- 200 p.
53. Kagarlitsky, B.Yu. History of Russia: World-System Analysis / B.Yu. Kagarlitsky, V.N. Sergeev. - M .: Lenand, 2018 .-- 432 p.
54. Kagarlitsky, B.Yu. History of Russia: World-System Analysis / B.Yu. Kagarlitsky, V.N. Sergeev. - M .: Lenand, 2014 .-- 432 p.
55. Kachala, V.V. Systems theory and systems analysis: Textbook / V.V. Rocked. - M .: Academy, 2008 .-- 352 p.
56. Kachala, V.V. Systems theory and systems analysis: Textbook / V.V. Rocked. - M .: Academia, 2013 .-- 96 p.
57. Kachala, V.V. Systems theory and systems analysis: A textbook for students of educational institutions of secondary vocational education / V.V. Kachala .. - M .: ITs Academy, 2013. - 272 p.
58. Kirillov, V.I. Qualimetry and system analysis: Textbook / V.I. Kirillov. - M .: Research Center Infra-M, New. knowledge, 2013. - 440 p.
59. Kirillov, V.I. Qualimetry and system analysis: Textbook / V.I. Kirillov. - M .: Infra-M, 2012 .-- 440 p.
60. Kirillov, V.I. Qualimetry and system analysis: Textbook / V.I. Kirillov. - M .: Infra-M, 2014 .-- 313 p.
61. Kiselev, V.M. Oil-gas-chemical complex Russian Federation... intellectual support for management decisions. system analysis and information design / V.M. Kiselev, S.V. Savinkov. - M .: Rusays, 2019 .-- 158 p.
62. Kozlov, V.N. System analysis, optimization and decision making / V.N. Kozlov. - M .: Prospect, 2016 .-- 176 p.
63. Korikov, A.M. Systems theory and systems analysis: Textbook / A.M. Korikov, S.N. Pavlov. - M .: Infra-M, 2016 .-- 416 p.
64. Kornev, G.N. System analysis: Uch. / G.N. Kornev, V.B. Yakovlev. - M .: Rior, 2013 .-- 252 p.
65. Kostusenko, I.I. System analysis of investment and innovation processes in the agro-industrial complex: Textbook / I.I. Kostusenko. - SPb .: Prospekt Nauki, 2014 .-- 176 p.
66. Leksin, V.N. Reforms and Regions: System Analysis of the Processes of Reforming the Regional Economy, Formation of Federalism and Local Self-Government / V.N. Leksin, A.N. Shvetsov. - M .: Lenand, 2012 .-- 1024 p.
67. Livshits, V.N. System analysis of the market reforming of the non-stationary economy of Russia: 1992-2013 / V.N. Livshits. - M .: Lenand, 2013 .-- 640 p.
68. Onishchenko, G.G. Systemic sewer benchmarking. In 2 volumes / G.G. Onishchenko, F.V. Karmazinov and others - SPb .: Professiya, 2011 .-- 992 p.
69. Pilyaeva, V.V. System analysis in management / V.V. Pilyaeva. - M .: KnoRus, 2013 .-- 304 p.
70. Pikhorovich, V.D. Marxism and World System Analysis: Marginal Notes for Capitalism Has a Future? / V.D. Pikhorovich. - M .: Lenand, 2018 .-- 200 p.
71. Popov, V. B. System analysis in management: Textbook / V.B. Popov. - M .: Finance and statistics, 2009. - 368 p.
72. Popov, V.N. System analysis in management: Textbook / V.N. Popov. - M .: KnoRus, 2018 .-- 240 p.
73. Samsonov, R.O. System analysis of geoecological risks in the gas industry / R.O. Samsonov. - M .: Scientific world, 2007 .-- 272 p.
74. Samsonov, R.O. System analysis of geoecological risks in the gas industry / R.O. Samsonov, A.S. Kazak, V.N. Bashkin, V.V. Forest. - Vologda: Infra-Engineering, 2007 .-- 282 p.
75. Severtsev, N.A. Systems analysis and security modeling. / ON. Severtsev. - M .: Higher school, 2006 .-- 462 p.
76. Serdyutskaya, L.F. System analysis and mathematical modeling of ecological processes in water ecosystems / L.F. Serdyutskaya. - M .: KD Librokom, 2009 .-- 144 p.
77. Sukhova, L.F. System analysis in economics: Textbook / L.F. Sukhova et al. - M .: Finance and statistics, 2009. - 512 p.
78. Tarasenko, F.P. Applied system analysis / F.P. Tarasenko. - M .: KnoRus, 2003 .-- 192 p.
79. Timchenko, T.N. System analysis in management: Textbook / T.N. Timchenko. - M .: ID RIOR, 2013 .-- 161 p.
80. Timchenko, T.N. System analysis in management: Textbook / T.N. Timchenko. - M .: Rior, 2017 .-- 704 p.
81. Tikhomirova, O. G. Project management: an integrated approach and system analysis: Monograph / O.G. Tikhomirov. - M .: NITs Infra-M, 2013 .-- 301 p.
82. Khomyakov, P.M. System analysis: Express-course of lectures / P.M. Khomyakov. - M .: Lenand, 2017 .-- 214 p.
83. Chernov, Yu.G. Psychological analysis of handwriting: a systematic approach and computer implementation in the psychology of criminology and forensic examination / Yu.G. Chernov. - M .: Genesis, 2011 .-- 464 p.
84. Shumsky, A.A. System analysis in information security / A.A. Shumsky, A.A. Shelupanov. - M .: Helios ARV, 2005 .-- 224 p.
85. Yuditsky, S.A. Systems theory and systems analysis in the management of organizations: Textbook / S.А. Yuditsky. - M .: Finance and statistics, 2012 .-- 848 p.
86. Yakovlev, S.V. Systems theory and systems analysis (laboratory practice): Textbook for universities / S.V. Yakovlev. - M .: Hotline -Telecom, 2015 .-- 320 p.
87. Yakovlev, S.V. Systems theory and systems analysis. Laboratory workshop: Textbook for universities / S.V. Yakovlev. - M .: GLT, 2015 .-- 320 p.

4.4 The process of converting information into data.

4.5 Computer science and information technology

5. Management in systems

5.1. Management as a process of purposeful information processing

5.2. Control system diagram

5.3. Information models

5.4 The role and place of man and information technology in automated control

5.5 Decision making process

Self-test questions

Part 2. Information economic systems

6. Basic concepts and structure of automated information technologies and systems in the economy

6.1. Classification of existing information technologies and systems

6.2. Automated information technologies, their development and classification

6.3. Problems of using information technologies

6.4. Types of information technology

6.4.1. Information technology data processing

Database

6.4.2. Information technology management

6.4.3. Office automation

6.4.4. Decision support information technology

6.5. Stages of development of information systems

6.6. Basic concepts of information systems

7. Methodology for creating automated information systems and technologies

7.1. The structure and composition of the information system

Information Systems

Technical preparation of production

Industrial enterprise

Information Support

Fig 7.3. The structure of the information system as a set of supporting subsystems

7.2. Design: stages and stages of creating ais and ait

7.3. Design features of ait and ais

7.4. Content and methods of design work

7.5. The role of the user in creating AIS and AIT and setting tasks

7.6. Problem setting technology

8. Types, types and assessment and application of information systems

8.1. Functional classification of information systems

8.2. Types of automated information systems in an organization

8.2.1. Operational level information system

8.2.2. Information systems of specialists

8.2.3. Information systems for middle managers

8.2.4. Strategic information systems

8.2.5. Information system for finding market niches.

8.2.6. Information systems that accelerate the flow of goods.

8.2.7. Information systems to reduce production costs.

8.2.8. Information technology automation systems ("concession management").

8.3. Classification of information systems by the nature of the use of information and scope

8.3.1. Classification by the nature of information use

8.3.2. Classification by scope

8.4. The main types of automated information systems

9. Problems of information security in information systems

9.1. Types of EIS security threats

9.2. Methods and means of information protection in economic information systems

Means methods

9.3. The main types of protection used in ait banking

Part 3. Integrated information technologies and systems for the formation, processing and presentation of data in the economy

10. Automated information technologies in accounting

10.1. Purpose of accounting systems in enterprise management.

10.2. Accounting IP in large enterprises.

10.3. Features of the functioning of a buis at small and medium-sized businesses.

10.4. Main characteristics of accounting information systems

10.4.1. Main characteristics of AIS 1C: enterprise

10.4.2. Main characteristics of ais best

Primary

10.4.2. Main characteristics of ais sail

11. Automated information technologies in banking

11.1. The specifics of organizing banking in Russia

11.2. Problems of creating automated banking systems

11.3. Features of information support of automated banking technologies

11.4. Banking technology technical solutions

11.5. Information technology software in banks

11.6. Functional tasks and modules of banking systems

11.7. Automation of interbank settlements

The main characteristics of AIS development and evaluation of investment projects

12.1. The production process and its support.

12.2. Business plan as a means of expressing ideas for the development of the company

12.3. Business plan development stages

12.4. Use of information systems for business planning

12.5 Brief description of the Project Expert package

13. General characteristics of AIS project management

13.1. Basic functionality of control systems

13.2. Characteristics of the most common project management systems

13.2.1. Microsoft Project

13.2.2.TimeLine6.5

13.2.3. Primavera Project Planner (p3)

13.2.4.SureTrak

13.2.5.ArtemisViews

13.2.6. Spider project

13.2.7. Open Plan Welcom Software

14. Reference and legal information systems

14.1. System "Consultant Plus"

14.2. System "Garant"

14.3. Information system "Contract"

15. Expert systems.

15.1. Characteristics and purpose of expert systems

15.2. The main components of information technology expert systems.

P instructions and information solution and explanation of knowledge 15.1. Expert system structure

16. Neural network technologies in financial and economic activities

17. Automated information technologies for the formation, processing and presentation of data in the tax service

17.1. Automated information system (AIS) "Tax"

17.2. Description of functional tasks solved in the tax authorities.

17.3. Features of information support of the tax service AIS

17.4. Features of information technologies used in tax authorities

18. Automated information technology in the treasury

18.1. Creation of treasury bodies and prospects for their development

18.2. Information support of the treasury bodies

18.3. Organization of automated information technology in the treasury bodies

18.4. Terminal architecture of the automated treasury information system

18.5. Client-server architecture of automated treasury information technology

18.6. Organization of the communication system of the treasury bodies

19. Plastic cards in Russia

19.1. What is a plastic card

19.2. Microprocessor cards

20. Automation in trade

20.1. Automation of accounting in trade

20.2. Barcodes as a means of automating trade calculations

20.3. Cashless payments with the buyer

21. Management automated information systems

21.1. Integrated management AIS concept

21.2. Basic requirements for an integrated AIS.

22. Electronic document management systems

23. Automation of work with personnel

24. Corporate information systems: technologies and solutions

24.1. Introduction

24.2. The structure of the corporate information system

24.3. Conclusion

25. Electronic Marketing and Distribution Channels

26. Information technology in tourism

26.1. Ways of development and efficiency of implementation of new information technologies in tourism

26.2. Classification of specialists and classes of tasks solved in the tourist office

26.3. Application programs for the formation, promotion and implementation of a tourist product

26.3.1. Market analysis of tourist office automation applications

26.3.2. Self-Tour Program

26.3.3. TurboTour program

26.3.4. Application Package Tourist Office

6. Financial module:

26.3.5. Travelnet-2000 retail network integration system

26.3.6. The program of automation of work in the tourist office "TurWin"

26.3.7. TourPilot

26.3.8. Business Tour program

26.4. Automated booking and reservation systems in tourism

26.4.1. Domestic reservation systems

26.4.2. Foreign reservation and reservation systems

Amadeus System (Amadeus Global Travel Distribution, www.Global.Amadeus.Net)

26.5. Domestic reservation systems for accommodation

26.5.1. System Key

26.5.2. Turintel system (www.Tourintel.Ru)

26.5.3. Tour Reserve System (www.Tours.Ru)

26.6. Complex automation of hotels

26.6.1. Hotel ACS (pms) "Edelweiss" is the core of the complex.

26.6.2. Working with other programs and systems

25.6.3. Automation programs for food and entertainment facilities

26.7. Best-pro (application "hotel administrator")

26.8. The use of the global computer network Internet in the practice of tourism business

26.8.1. Opportunities of the Internet in the formation, promotion and implementation of a tourist product

26.8.2. Participation in international tourism exhibitions and fairs on the Internet

26.8.3. Electronic system for booking and reserving tourist services in the Internet

26.8.5. Other Uses of the Internet for Tourism

3.1. Basic concepts of systems theory and systems analysis.

Let's give the basic definitions of systems analysis and systems theory.

System element - a part of the system that performs a certain function (the lecturer reads a lecture, students listen to it and take notes, etc.). An element is some object (material, energetic, informational), a part of a system, which has a number of important properties for us, but the internal structure (content) of which is irrespective of the purpose of consideration. The answer to the question of what is such a part may be ambiguous and depends on the purpose of considering the object as a system, on the point of view of it or on the aspect of its study. Thus, an element is the limit of the division of the system from the point of view of the solution specific task and the set goal.

A system element can be complex, consisting of interconnected parts, i.e. also represent a system. Such a complex element is often called subsystem.

Subsystem. The system can be divided into elements not immediately, but by sequential dividing into subsystems, which are components that are larger than the elements, and at the same time more detailed than the system as a whole. The possibility of dividing the system into subsystems is associated with the isolation of sets of interrelated elements capable of performing relatively independent functions, sub-goals aimed at achieving the overall goal of the system. The name "subsystem" emphasizes that such a part must possess the properties of the system (in particular, the property of integrity). This is how the subsystem differs from a simple group of elements for which a sub-goal is not formulated and the integrity properties are not fulfilled (for such a group the name “components” is used). For example, ACS subsystems, passenger transport subsystems in a large city.

Characteristic- what reflects some property of the system element. The characteristic of a system element is usually specified by a name and range.

Characteristics are divided into quantitative and qualitative, depending on the type of relationship. If the range of acceptable values ​​is specified by metric values, then the characteristic is quantitative (for example, screen size). If the space of values ​​is not metric, then the characteristic is qualitative (for example, such a characteristic of a monitor as a comfortable resolution, which, although measured in pixels, depends on the characteristics of the user). A quantitative characteristic is called a parameter.

Connection - important for the purposes of consideration, the exchange between elements of matter, energy, information.

The concept " connection"Is included in any definition of the system along with the concept" element»And ensures the emergence and preservation of the structure and integral properties of the system. This concept characterizes both the structure (statics) and the functioning (dynamics) of the system.

Communication is characterized by direction, strength and character (or view). According to the first two signs, connections can be divided into directional and non-directional, strong and weak, but by nature- on subordination ties, genetic, equal (or indifferent), management ties... Links can also be divided according to the place of application (internal and external), according to the direction of the processes in the system as a whole or in its individual subsystems (direct and reverse). Connections in specific systems can be simultaneously characterized by several of these features.

The concept of "feedback" plays an important role in systems. This concept, easily illustrated by examples of technical devices, is not always applicable in organizational systems. Much attention is paid to the study of this concept in cybernetics, in which the possibility of transferring feedback mechanisms characteristic of objects of one physical nature to objects of another nature is being studied. Feedback is the basis for self-regulation and development of systems, their adaptation to changing conditions of existence.

System - a set of elements, which has the following features:

links, which allow, through transitions along them from element to element, to connect any two elements of the set;

a property different from the properties of the individual elements of the set.

Almost any object from a certain point of view can be considered as a system. The question is, how appropriate is such a point of view.

System structure ... This concept comes from the Latin word structure, meaning structure, location, order. The structure reflects the most essential relationships between elements and their groups (components, subsystems), which change little with changes in the system and ensure the existence of the system and its basic properties. A structure is a set of elements, a division of a system into groups of elements with an indication of the connections between them, unchanged for the entire time of consideration and giving an idea of ​​the system as a whole. This division may have a material, functional, algorithmic or other basis. The structure can be represented graphically, in the form of set-theoretic descriptions, matrices, graphs, networks, hierarchies: tree-like and multi-level (" strat», « layers" and " echelons») And other languages ​​for modeling structures.

System structure - a set of internal stable connections between the elements of the system, which determines its basic properties. For example, in a hierarchical structure, individual elements form subordinate levels, and internal connections are formed between these levels. System structure can be characterized by the types of connections available in it. The simplest of them are serial, parallel connection and feedback.

The structure is often presented as a hierarchy. Hierarchy - this is the ordering of components according to the degree of importance (multistage, career ladder). Hierarchy - structure with the presence of subordination, i.e. unequal connections between elements, when the impact in one direction has a much greater impact on the element than in the other.

The types of hierarchical structures are diverse, but there are only two hierarchical structures that are important for the practice - tree-like and multilevel... Between the levels of the hierarchical structure, there can be relationships of strict subordination of the components (nodes) of the lower level to one of the components of the higher level. Such hierarchies are called strong hierarchies type "tree". They have a number of features that make them a convenient means of representing control systems. The tree structure is the easiest to analyze and implement. In addition, it is always convenient to select hierarchical levels in it - groups of elements located at the same distance from the top element. An example of a tree structure is the task of designing a technical object from its main characteristics (upper level) through the design of main parts, functional systems, groups of units, mechanisms to the level of individual parts.

However, there can be links within the same level of the hierarchy. One and the same lower-level node can be simultaneously subordinated to several higher-level nodes. Such structures are called hierarchical structures " loosely coupled". More complex relationships can exist between the levels of the hierarchical structure, for example, of the type of "strata", "layers", "echelons". Examples of hierarchical structures: energy systems, automated control systems, state apparatus.

Material structure example- block diagram of a prefabricated bridge, which consists of separate, assembled on site sections and indicates only these sections and the order of their connection. Functional structure example- division of the internal combustion engine into power supply, lubrication, cooling, torque transmission systems. An example of an algorithmic structure- an algorithm of a software tool indicating a sequence of actions or an instruction that determines actions when finding a malfunction of a technical device.

System organization - internal orderliness and consistency of the interaction of system elements. The organization of the system is manifested, for example, in limiting the variety of states of elements within the system (during the lecture, they do not play volleyball).

System integrity - the fundamental non-reducibility of the properties of a system to the sum of the properties of its elements. At the same time, the properties of each element depend on its place and function in the system. So, if we return to the example with a lecture, then, considering separately the properties of the lecturer, students, subjects, equipment, classroom, etc., it is impossible to unambiguously determine the properties of the system where these elements will be used together.

The classification of systems, like any classification, can be made according to various criteria. In the most general terms, systems can be divided into material and abstract.

Material systems are a collection of material objects. Among material systems, one can distinguish inorganic(technical, chemical, etc.), organic(biological) and mixed containing elements of both inorganic and organic nature. Among mixed systems, special attention should be paid to man-machine(ergo-technical) systems in which a person carries out his labor activity with the help of machines.

An important place among material systems is occupied by social systems with social relations (connections) between people. Under the class of these systems are socio - economic systems, in which the connections between the elements are the social relations of people in the production process.

Abstract systems - it is a product of human thinking: knowledge, theory, hypothesis, etc.

By time dependence they distinguish static and dynamic systems ... In static systems, the state does not change over time; in dynamic systems, the state changes in the course of its functioning.

Dynamical systems from the point of view of an observer can be deterministic and probabilistic (stochastic). In a deterministic system, the state of its elements at any moment of time is completely determined by their state in the previous or subsequent moments of time. In other words, it is always possible to predict the behavior of a deterministic system. If the behavior cannot be predicted, then the system belongs to the class of probabilistic (stochastic) systems.

Any system is part of a larger system. This large system, as it were, surrounds it and appears for this system with the external environment.

By the way the system interacts with the external environment, they distinguish closed andopen systems . Closed systems do not interact with the external environment, all processes, except for energy, are closed within the system. Open systems actively interact with the external environment, which allows them to develop towards improvement and complication.

According to the complexity of the system, it is customary to divide into simple, complex and big (very difficult).

Simple system - it is a system that does not have a developed structure (for example, hierarchical levels cannot be identified).

A complex system - a system that consists of elements of different types and has heterogeneous connections between them. As an example, let's take a computer, a forestry tractor, or a ship. A complex system - a system with a developed structure and consisting of elements - subsystems, which are, in turn, simple systems.

Automated system - a complex system with a decisive role of two types of elements: * - in the form of technical means; * - in the form of human action.

For a complex system, the automated mode is considered more preferable than the automatic one. For example, the landing of an airplane or the grabbing of a tree with a harvester head is performed with human assistance, while the autopilot or on-board computer is used only for relatively simple operations. A typical situation is also when a solution developed by technical means is approved for execution by a person.

Big system - a system that includes a significant number of elements of the same type and connections of the same type. An example is a pipeline. The elements of the latter will be the areas between the seams or supports. For strength calculations using the finite element method, the elements of the system are considered to be small sections of the pipe, and the connection has a power (energetic) character - each element acts on neighboring elements.

Big system - it is a complex system with a number of additional features: the presence of various (material, informational, monetary, energy) connections between subsystems and elements of subsystems; system openness; the presence of elements of self-organization in the system; participation in the functioning of the system of people, machines and the natural environment.

The concept of a large system was introduced, as follows from the above characteristics, to designate a special group of systems that defy precise and detailed description. For large systems, the following main features can be distinguished:

1. Having a structure , thanks to which you can find out how the system is arranged, what subsystems and elements it consists of, what their functions and relationships are, how the system interacts with the external environment.

2. Having a single purpose of functioning , those. the private goals of subsystems and elements must be subordinated to the goals of the functioning of the system.

3. Resistance to external and internal disturbances . This property implies that the system performs its functions under conditions of internal random changes in parameters and destabilizing effects of the external environment.

4. Complex composition of the system , those. elements and subsystems of a large system are objects that are very diverse in their nature and principles of functioning.

5. Ability to develop . The development of systems is based on the contradictions between the elements of the system. Removal of contradictions is possible with an increase in functional diversity, and this is development.

Decomposition- division of the system into parts, convenient for any operations with this system. Examples will be: division of an object into separately designed parts, service areas; consideration of a physical phenomenon or mathematical description separately for a part of the system.

State... The concept of "state" usually characterizes an instant photograph, a "cut" of the system, a stop in its development. It is determined either through input actions and output signals (results), or through macroparameters, macro properties of the system (for example, pressure, speed, acceleration - for physical systems; productivity, production cost, profit - for economic systems).

Behavior... If a system is capable of transitioning from one state to another, then it is said that it has behavior. This concept is used when the patterns of transitions from one state to another are unknown. Then they say that the system has some kind of behavior, and find out its regularities.

External environment... The external environment is understood as a set of elements that are not included in the system, but a change in their state causes a change in the behavior of the system.

Model... A system model is understood as a description of a system that reflects a certain group of its properties. Deepening the description - detailing the model. The creation of a model of the system allows predicting its behavior in a certain range of conditions.

The model of the functioning (behavior) of the system is a model that predicts the change in the state of the system in time, for example: full-scale (analog), electrical, machine on a computer, etc.

Equilibrium... This is the ability of the system in the absence of external disturbing influences (or with constant influences) to maintain its state for an arbitrarily long time.

Sustainability... Stability is understood as the ability of a system to return to a state of equilibrium after it has been removed from this state under the influence of external disturbing influences. This ability is usually inherent in systems with constant u t if only the deviations do not exceed a certain limit.

The state of equilibrium, into which the system is able to return, by analogy with technical devices, is called a stable state of equilibrium. Equilibrium and stability in economic and organizational systems are much more complex concepts than in technology, and until recently they were used only for some preliminary descriptive representation of the system. Recently, there have been attempts to formalize these processes in complex organizational systems, helping to identify the parameters that affect their course and relationship.

Development. In cybernetics and systems theory, much attention is paid to the study of the development process, the relationship between development and stability processes, and the study of the mechanisms underlying them. The concept of development helps to explain complex thermodynamic and informational processes in nature and society.

Target... The use of the concept of "goal" and the related concepts of purposefulness, purposefulness, expediency is constrained by the difficulty of their unambiguous interpretation in specific conditions. This is due to the fact that the process of goal setting and the corresponding process of justifying goals in organizational systems is very complex and not fully understood. Much attention is paid to his research in psychology, philosophy, cybernetics. In the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, the goal is defined as "a previously conceivable result of a person's conscious activity." In practical applications, the target is either perfect aspiration that allows the team to see perspectives or real opportunities, specific goals - the final results, achievable within a certain interval of time, ensuring the timely completion of the next stage on the path to ideal aspirations.

At present, in connection with the strengthening of program-target principles in planning, more and more attention is paid to the study of the patterns of goal-setting and the presentation of goals in specific conditions. For example: an energy program, a food program, a housing program, a program for the transition to a market economy. The concept of a goal underlies the development of the system.

The concept of information in the system.

Information- a set of information perceived by the system from the environment, issued to the environment or stored inside information system.

Data- presentation in a formal form of specific information about objects of the subject area, their properties and relationships, reflecting events and situations in the area. The data is presented in a form that allows you to automate their collection, storage, and further processing by information systems. Data is a record in the corresponding code.

The organization of storage and processing of large amounts of information about various systems led to the emergence of databases.

System model and purpose

The concept of the model is interpreted ambiguously. It is based on the similarity of the processes occurring in reality and in the model that replaces the real object. In philosophy, a model is understood as a broad category of cybernetics, replacing the studied object with its simplified representation, with the aim of a deeper understanding of the original. A mathematical model (hereinafter simply a model) is understood as an ideal mathematical reflection of the object under study.

Fundamental (detailed) models that quantitatively describe the behavior or properties of a system, starting with as many basic physical assumptions (primary principles) as possible. Such models are extremely detailed and accurate for the phenomena they describe.

Phenomenological models are used for a qualitative description of physical processes when the exact relationships are unknown or too complicated to apply. Such approximate or averaged models are usually physically based and contain inputs from experiment or more fundamental theories. The phenomenological model is based on a qualitative understanding of the physical situation. When obtaining phenomenological models, we use general principles and conservation conditions.

Control

In the broadest sense of the word, management is understood as an organizational activity that performs functions and is aimed at achieving certain goals.

The study, analysis and synthesis of large systems is based on a systematic approach, which involves taking into account the basic properties of such systems.