Basics of mapping buildings in the Surfer software package.

Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation

COURSE WORK

Construction of digital relief models according to the radar topographic shooting SRTM

Saratov 2011.

Introduction

Concept of digital relief models (CMR)

1 History of the creation of the CMR

2 Types of CMR

3 Methods and methods for creating a CMR

4 National and Global CMR

Data of radar topographic shooting (SRTM)

1 version and nomenclature of data

2 SRTM data accuracy assessment

3 Using SRTM data to solve applied tasks

Application of SRTM when creating geo-making (on the example of Saratov and Engel districts)

1 The concept of geo-processing

2 Building a digital model of relief on the territory of Saratov and Engel district

Conclusion

Introduction

Digital Relief Models (CMR) is one of the important modeling functions of geo-information systems, including two groups of operations, the first of which serves solving the problems of creating a relief model, the second is its use.

This type of product is a completely three-dimensional mapping of real terrain at the time of the production of removal work, which allows it to be used to solve various applied tasks, for example: the definition of any geometric relief parameters, constructing cross-section profiles; carrying out design and survey work; monitoring relief speakers; calculating the geometric characteristics (area, length, perimeter) taking into account the relief for the needs of architecture and urban planning; engineering surveys, cartography, navigation; Calculation of the slopes, monitoring and prediction of geological and hydrological processes; Calculation of light and wind regime for architecture and urban planning, engineering surveys, environmental monitoring; Construction of visibility zones for telecommunication and cellular companies, architecture and urban planning. In addition, the CMR is widely used to visualize the territory in the form of three-dimensional images, thereby providing the opportunity to build virtual area models (VMM).

Relevance of the topic term paper Defended by the need of geographical research in the use of relief data in digital form due to the increasing role of geo-information technologies in solving various tasks, the need to improve the quality and effectiveness of methods for creating and using digital models of relief (CMAR), ensuring the reliability of the models being created.

Topographic maps, remote sensing data (DDZ), data of satellite positioning systems, geodesic works are served to create a ZMR sushi; Promotional data and echo bellows, materials of photodolite and radar shooting.

Currently, national CMRs have been created in some developed countries, for example, the territory of the United States, Canada, Denmark, Israel and other countries. On the territory of the Russian Federation currently there are no publicly available data for this quality.

An alternative source of altitudes are freely distributed SRTM data (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission), available on most of the territory of the globe with a resolution of model 90 m.

The purpose of this work is to study an alternative source of data on the height of the radar shooting of the Earth - SRTM, as well as their processing methods.

As part of the goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

to obtain theoretical ideas about the concepts, types and methods of creating a CMR, study the necessary data for the construction of the CMR, to allocate the most promising directions for the use of these models to solve various applied tasks;

determine SRTM data sources, reveal technical features, examine access to SRTM data

display possible directions for using these type data.

To write a course work as sources used: tutorials on geoinformatics and remote sensing, periodicals, electronic Internet resources.

1. CONCEPT Digital Relief Models (CMR)

One of the significant advantages of technology of geographical information systems over ordinary "paper" cartographic methods is the ability to create spatial models in three dimensions. The main coordinates for such GIS models, in addition to the usual latitude and longitude, the altitude data will also serve. At the same time, the system can work with dozens and hundreds of thousands of high-rise marks, and not with units and dozens, which was possible when using the methods of "paper" cartography. Due to the availability of fast computer processing of huge arrays of high-altitude data, it becomes actually performed by the task of creating the most real digital relief model (CMR).

Under the digital relief model, it is customary to understand the means of a digital presentation of three-dimensional features (surfaces, or reliefs) in the form of three-dimensional data forming a plurality of high-altitude marks (depth marks) and other Z coordinate values, in the nodes of a regular or continuous network or a set of horizontal entries (izojps, Initat) or other isolines. The CMR is a special type of three dimensional mathematical models, which are a mapping of relief of both real and abstract surfaces.

1 History of the creation of the CMR

The image of the relief has long been interested in people. On the oldest maps, large-scale relief forms were displayed as an integral part of the landscape and as an orientation element. The first way to display the relief was promising signs showing mountains and hills; However, from the eighteenth century, the active development of new, increasingly complex ways began. A promising method with a barcode drawing is represented on the map of the Pyrenees Mountains (1730). The color for the design of the relief plastics was first applied in the Atlace of the Russian troops campaign in Switzerland (1799). The first experiments on the creation of the CMR refer to the earliest stages of the development of geo-formatics and automated cartography of the first half of the 1960s. One of the first digital patterns of the terrain was made in 1961 at the Department of Cartography of the Military Engineering Academy. Subsequently, methods and algorithms for solving various tasks were developed, powerful software Simulation, large national and global arrays of the relief data, has accumulated experience with their help of various scientific and applied tasks. In particular, the use of CMR for military tasks was greatly developed.

2 Types of CMR

The most widespread representations of surfaces in GIS are a raster presentation and TIN model. Based on these two representatives, two historically stood out alternative models CMR: based on purely regular (matrix) representations of the fields of the elevation of heights and structural, one of the most developed forms of which are models based on structural and linguistic representation.

The raster model of the relief - provides for the partition of space on the next non-divible elements (pixels), forming a height matrix - a regular network of high-rise marks. Similar digital relief models are created by the national cartographic services of many countries. A regular height network is a grille with equal rectangles or squares, where the vertices of these figures are grid nodes (Fig. 1-3).

Fig. 1.2.1 Increased Fragment of the Relief Model Showing the Raster Structure of the Model.

Fig. 1.2.2 Displays a regular network of height network on the plane.

Fig. 1.2.3. Three-dimensional relief model of the surroundings. Communar (Khakassia), built on the basis of a regular network height / 1 /

One of the first packages of programs in which the possibility of multiple input of different layers of raster cells was implemented was the GRID package (translated from the English. - Grille, grid, network) created in the late 1960s. In the Harvard laboratory of machine graphics and spatial analysis (USA). In a modern widespread GIS-package ArcGIS, the raster spatial data model is also called Grid. In another popular program for calculating the CMR - SURFER, the regular height network is also called Grid, such a CMR files have a GRD format, and the calculation of such a model is called Gridding.

When creating a regular height network (GRID), it is very important to take into account the grid density (grid step), which determines its spatial resolution. The smaller the selected step, the more accurate the CMR is the above spatial resolution of the model, but the greater the number of grid nodes, therefore, more time is required to calculate the CMR and more disk space. For example, with a decrease in the grid step 2 times the volume of computer memory required to store the model, increases 4 times. From here it follows that it is necessary to find a balance. For example, a standard for the MDC of the US geological shooting, designed for a national digital data cartographic bank, specifies a digital relief model as a regular array of high-altitude marks in the lattice nodes of 30x30 m for a scale of 1:24,000. By interpolation, approximation, smoothing and other transformations to Raster models can be given by the CMR of all other types.

Among irregular grids, the triangular network of irregular shape is most often used - the TIN model. It was designed in the early 1970s. As an easy way to build surfaces based on a set of unevenly located points. In the 1970s. Several options for this system were created, commercial systems based on TIN began to appear in the 1980s. Like software packages for building horizontals. The TIN model is used for digital modeling of the relief, while the source and derivatives of the digital model are configured to the knots and edges of the triangular network. When constructing a TiN model, discretely located points are connected by lines forming triangles (Fig. 4).

Fig. 1.2.4. The condition of the triangulation of Delon.

Within each triangle of the TIN model, the surface is usually represented by a plane. Since the surface of each triangle is set by the heights of its three vertices, the use of triangles provides for each section of the mosaic surface with an exact fit to adjacent sections.

Fig.1.2.5. Three-dimensional relief model built on the basis of an irregular triangulation network (TIN).

This ensures the continuity of the surface at irregular location of the points (Fig. 5-6).

Fig. 1.2.6. An enlarged fragment of the relief model in fig. 5, showing the triangular structure of the TIN model.

The main method of calculating TIN is triangulation of Delon, because Compared to other methods, it has the most suitable for digital relief models: it has the smallest harmonicity index as the sum of the harmonicity indices of each of the forming triangles (proximity to the equituronic triangulation), the maximal properties of the minimum angle (the greatest non-degenerate triangles) and the minimality of the area of \u200b\u200bthe multifaceted surface.

Since the GRID model and the TIN model were widely used in geographic information systems and supported by many types of GIS software, then it is necessary to know the advantages and disadvantages of each model in order to properly select the storage format for the relief. As the advantages of the GRID model, it should be noted the simplicity and speed of its computer processing, which is associated with the raster nature of the model. Output devices, such as monitors, printers, plotters, etc., for creating images use dots sets, i.e. Also have raster format. Therefore, Grid images are easily and quickly displayed on such devices, as it is easy to perform calculations on computers to represent individual squares of the regular height network using points or video samples of output devices.

Due to its raster structure, the GRID model allows you to "smooth out" the simulated surface and avoid sharp faces and protrusions. But in this lies and "minus" models, because When modeling the relief of mountainous areas (especially young - for example, alpine folding) with an abundance of steep slopes and pointed peaks, loss and "erosion" of structural lines of the relief and distortion of the common picture are possible. In such cases, an increase in the spatial resolution of the model (step of the mesh height) is required, and this is fraught with a sharp increase in the volume of computer memory required for the storage of the CMR. In general, as a rule, the GRID model takes more space on the disk than the TIN models. To speed up the display of large digital relief models, various methods are used, of which the most popular - constructing so-called pyramidal layers, allowing to use under different scales various levels Image details. Thus, the GRID model is ideal for mapping geographic (geological) objects or phenomena, the characteristics of which are smoothly changed in space (relief of the plain territories, air temperature, atmospheric pressure, reservoir oil pressure, etc.). As noted above, the shortcomings of the GRID model are manifested in modeling the relief of young populations. Especially unfavorable situation using a regular network of high-altitude marks is evolving, if extensive aligned sections with sections of ledges and cliffs are alternate on the simulated territory, having sharp height differences, such as, for example, in widely developed valleys of large plain rivers (Fig. 7). In this case, most of the simulated territory will be the "redundancy" of information, because Grid grid nodes in flat areas will have the same high-rise values. But in areas of steep relief ledges, the size of the height mesh step can be too large, and, accordingly, the spatial resolution of the model is insufficient for the transfer of "plastic" of the relief.

Fig. 1.2.7. The fragment of the three-dimensional model of the relief of the Tom Valley (the red arrow is shown by the ledge of the second peculiar terrace on the left bank, the high proceed on the right bank is the slope of the interrefined plain). The vertical scale is five times large horizontal.

Similar flaws are devoid of the TIN model. Since the irregular triangles network is used, the flat areas are simulated by a small number of huge triangles, and in areas of steep ledges, where it is necessary to show all the edges of the relief in detail, the surface is displayed by numerous small triangles (Fig. 8). This allows you to more effectively use the resources of the operational and constant computer memory for storing the model.

Fig. 1.2.8. Irregular network of triangles.

To the number of "minuses" TIN include high costs of computer resources on the processing of the model, which significantly slows down the MDC display on the monitor screen and print output, because It requires a rasterization. One of the solutions of this problem may be the introduction of "hybrid" models, combining the TIN structural lines and the display method in the form of a regular dialing. Another significant disadvantage of the TIN model is "the effect of terraces", expressed in the appearance of the so-called "pseudo-triggers" - flat sites in a deliberately impossible geomorphological situation (for example, along the bottom line of V-shaped valleys) (Fig. 9).

One of the main reasons is a small distance between the digital recording points of horizontals in comparison with the distances between the horizontals themselves, which is characteristic of most relief types in their cartographic mapping.

Fig. 1.2.9. "The Effect of Terraces" in the valleys of small rivers, which occurs when creating TIN based on horizontals without taking into account the structural lines of the relief (in this case - hydrosets).

3 Methods and methods for creating a CMR

From the moment the first cards appeared, the problem of displaying three-dimensional relief on a two-dimensional map was faced. For this, various methods were tried. On the topographic mapsah and plans, relief was depicted using horizontals - lines of equal heights. On the generalographic and physical maps, a wash (hatching) of the relief or a certain height of the terrain was assigned the color of the corresponding tonality (height scale). Currently with the advent of digital cards and plans, increasing speed computer equipment New reference features appear. Three-dimensional visualization of the relief model is becoming increasingly popular, as it gives the opportunity even professionally unprepared people, to get a fairly complete picture of the relief. Modern technologies Three-dimensional visualization allow you to "take a look" on the terrain of the area from any point of space, at any angle, as well as "fly" above the terrain.

Since the development of information systems and technologies, as well as the development of the satellite industry, various methods and methods that provide the possibility of building the CMR appeared. There are two fundamentally different ways to obtain data to build digital relief models.

The first method is the methods of remote sensing and photogrammetry. To such methods of creating a CMR, the method of radar interferometry belongs. It is based on the use of the phase component of the radar signal reflected from the ground surface. The accuracy of the recovery of the CMR by the interferometric method is a unit of meters, and, depending on the nature of the area and the level of signal noise, it changes. For a smoothed surface and for an interferogram of high quality, the relief recovery accuracy can reach several tens of centimeters. There is also a method of stereoscopic processing of radar data. For the operation of the module, the presence of two radar images taken with different angles of tilt of the beam. The accuracy of the reduction of the CMR stereoscopic method depends on the size of the spatial resolution element of the picture. The technology of air laser scanning (VLC) is the fastest full and reliable way to collect space-geometrical information on hard-to-reach (wetched and preplanted) territories. The method provides accurate and detailed data and relief and about the situation. Today, the VLS technology allows for the shortest possible time to obtain full spatially geometric information about the terrain, plant cover, hydrography and all ground objects in the shooting band.

The second method is to construct relief models by interpolation of fifrcled insoli from topographic maps. This approach is also not new, has its strengths and weaknesses. Of the disadvantages you can call the complexity and sometimes not enough satisfactory modeling accuracy. But, despite these shortcomings, it can be argued that digitized topographic materials for several years will be non-alternative data sources for such simulation.

4 National and Global CMR

The public accessibility of the Data and the TSMR building technology makes it possible to make many countries to create national relief models used for the country's personal needs, examples of such countries are US, Canada, Israel, Denmark and some other countries. One of the leaders in the field of creating and using the CMR is the United States. Currently, the National Topograph Cartographic Service of the country - the Geological Survey of the United States (U.S. Geological Survey) - there are five sets of data representing the CMR in Dem (Digital Elevation Model) and differ in technology, resolution and spatial coverage. Another example of a successful experience of the National CMR can serve as the CMR Denmark. The first digital model of the relief of Denmark was created in 1985 to solve the problem of optimal placement of mobile network translators. Digital models of relief in the form of high-rise matrices are included in the sets of basic spatial data of almost all national and regional IPDs (information spatial data). At the present level of development of technologies, the high-altitude mark grid step in national CMS reaches 5 m. MDCs with such spatial resolution are fully prepared or will be ready in the near future for such major territories as the European Union and the United States. The feasibility of the relief of the relief established in our country in our country is lost under conditions when the global ASTGTM global CMR can be purchased on the world market with a step of high-rise marks about 30 m (one angular second). In addition, it is expected that the resolution of publicly available CMR will grow steadily. As a possible temporary solution, the problem is proposed to maintain secrecy mode for the most detailed basic CMR and freely distribute less detailed CMS, created on the basis of the base; Phased to reduce the threshold of the secrecy of the CMD, depending on the accuracy of the relief and the area covered by it.

2. SRTM data

rADAR TOPOGRAPHIC MISSION (SRTM) - radar topographic shooting of most of the territory of the globe, with the exception of the northernmost (\u003e 60), the most southern latitudes (\u003e 54), as well as the oceans produced in 11 days in February 2000 with a special radar system, From the side of the spacecraft of the reusable "Shuttle". Two SIR-C and X-SAR radar sensors were collected more than 12 terabytes of data. During this time, with the help of a method called radar interferometry, a huge amount of information about the relief of the Earth was collected, its processing continues until now. The result of the shooting was the digital model of the relief of 85 percent of the surface of the earth (Fig. 9). But a certain amount of information is already available to users. SRTM - international projectHe headed by the national geospatial special services (NGA), NASA, Italian Space Agency (ASI) and the German Space Center.

Fig. 2.1. The scheme of covering the territory of the earth by shooting SRTM.

1 version and nomenclature of data

SRTM data exists in several versions: preliminary (version 1, 2003 g) and final (version 2, February 2005). The final version passed additional processing, allocation of coastlines and water bodies, filtering erroneous values. Data is distributed in several embodiments - a mesh with a cell size of 1 Angular second and 3 angular seconds. More accurate single-ace data (SRTM1) are available on the territory of the United States, only three-second data (SRTM3) is available on the rest of the earth. Data files are a matrix of 1201 ´ 1201 (or 3601 ´ 3601 For a single-acein version) of values \u200b\u200bthat can be imported into various programs for building cards and geographic information systems. In addition, there is a version 3 distributed as ARC GRID files, as well as Arc ASCII and in GeoTiff format, squares 5 ´ 5 in the WGS84 datum. These data were obtained by the CIAT organization from the original high-altitude data of the USGS / NASA by processing, which ensured the production of smooth topographic surfaces, as well as the interpolation of the areas in which the source data was missing.

The data nomenclature is made in this way, the name of the square of these versions 1 and 2 corresponds to the coordinates of its left lower angle, for example: N45E136, where N45 is 45 degrees of northern latitude, and E136 is 136 degrees of Eastern longitude, letters (N) and (E) in the name The file is denoted, respectively, the Northern and Eastern Hemisphere .. The name of the data of the processed version of the process (CGIAR) corresponds to the square number at the rate of 72 square horizontally (360/5) and 24 square vertical (120/5). For example: SRTM_72_02.zip / Extremely right, one of the upper squares. It is possible to determine the desired square using the sample mesh (Fig. 11.).

Fig.2.1.1. SRTM4 coating scheme.

2 SRTM data accuracy assessment

The values \u200b\u200bof the heights of the cells of 3 at 3. The accuracy of the heights is not less than 16 m, but the type of estimation of this value is the average, maximum, average quadratic error (SCO) - is not explained, which is not surprising, because for strict accuracy estimate We need either reference values \u200b\u200bof the height of approximately the same degree of coverage, or a strict theoretical analysis of the process of obtaining and processing data. In this regard, the analysis of the accuracy of the SRTM heights matrix was carried out not by one team of scientists around the world. According to A.K. Korveul and I. Eviaca SRTM heights have an error that is an average of 2.9 m for flat terrain, and for hilly - 5.4 m. Moreover, a significant part of these errors includes a systematic component. According to their conclusions, the SRTM height matrix is \u200b\u200bsuitable for building horizontals on topographic maps of scale 1: 50000 But in some territories of SRTM height, by its accuracy, approximately correspond to the heights obtained from the topographic map of the scale of 1: 100000, and can also be used when creating orthophotoplans on cosmic pictures high resolutionRemoved with a minor angle of deviation from Nadir.

2.3 Using SRTM data to solve applied tasks

SRTM data can be solved in various applied tasks, varying degrees of complexity, for example: to use them when constructing orthophotoplans, to assess the complexity of upcoming topographic and geodesic work, planning them, and may also assist in designing profiles and other objects before Tops, obtained from the results of the radar shooting of SRTM, the values \u200b\u200bof excess points of the area can be used to update the topospace territories, where there are no data of detailed topographic and geodesic works. This type of data is a universal source for modeling the earth's surface, mainly for the construction of digital modeling models and digital locality models, but the question of the applicability of the radar high-altitude data SRTM as an alternative standard methods Building a digital model of terrain and relief, in our opinion, should be solved in each case individually, depending on the task, the characteristics of the relief and the required accuracy of the altitude binding.

3. Application SRTM when creating geo-

1 The concept of geo-processing

Progress of geoinformation mapping, remote sensing and means of knowledge of the surrounding world. Shooting on any scale and ranges, with different spatial coverage and resolution are carried out on Earth and under the ground, on the surface of the oceans and under water, with air and from space. All many cards, snapshots and other similar models can be designated by one common term - geo-image.

Geo-processing is any spatial - temporary, large-scale, generalized model of earth or planetary objects or processes represented in graphical form.

Geo-processing represents the subsoil of the Earth and its surface, the oceans and the atmosphere, the pedosphere, the socio-economic sphere and the areas of their interaction.

Geo- images divided into three classes:

Flat, or two-dimensional, - maps, plans, anamorphoses, photographs, photographs, television, scanner, radar and other remote images.

Volumented, or three-dimensional, - anaglyphs, relief and physiographic maps, stereoscopic, block, holographic models.

Dynamic three and four-dimensional - animations, cartographic, stereo-cardographic films, film cateries, virtual images.

Many of them entered into practice, others appeared recently, others still under development. So in this course work, we built two-dimensional and three-dimensional geo-making.

3.2 Construction of a digital relief model into the territory of Saratov

and Engel district

First, you download the publicly available SRTM data of the additional processing version 2, on the Internet portal open to any network user (# "Justify"\u003e In the future, you open the downloaded fragment in the Global Mapper program, select the "File" function further "Export Raster and Elevation Data" - " EXPORT DEM "(Fig.12), this series of operations was done in order to download data to the DEM format, which is read to read the VERTICAL MAPPER program in which the model will be constructed.

Fig.3.2.1. Export file to DEM format, in the Global Mapper [executed by the author] program.

After exporting data, you open the VERTICAL MAPPER program in which we produce next steps - Create Grid - Import Grid (Fig. 13).

Fig. 3.2.2. Creating a grid model in the Vertical Mapper program [executed by the author].

With the help of these functions, we create a GRID model with which in the future author and carried out all operations to create a CMR into the territory of the Saratov region, to create an isolated and three-dimensional model of relief.

Conclusion

The digital relief model is an important modeling function in geographic information systems, as it makes it possible to solve the problem of building a model of relief and its use. This type of product is a completely three-dimensional mapping of real terrain at the time of the filming work, thereby giving the opportunity to solve a plurality of applied tasks: the definition of any geometric relief parameters, constructing cross-section profiles; carrying out design and survey work; Monitoring relief speakers. In addition, the CMR is widely used to visualize the territory in the form of three-dimensional images, thereby providing the opportunity to build virtual area models (VMM).

The relevance of the topic of the course work is due to the wide need of geographical research on the relief data in digital form, due to the increasing role of geo-information technologies in solving various tasks, the need to improve the quality and efficiency of the methods for creating and using digital relief models (CMAR), ensuring the reliability of the models being created.

Currently, there are several basic data sources to build digital models of relief - this is the interpolation of digitized insulators from topographic maps and remote sensing method and photogrammetry. The remote sensing method is gaining increasing force in solving many geographical problems, such as the construction of the relief according to the data of the satellite radar sensing of the Earth. One of the Earth radar sensing products are publicly available and free SRTM data (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission), available on most of the world's territory with a resolution of model 90 m.

In the process of writing the course work, a digital model of relief was built into the territory of Saratov and Engel districts, thereby deciding the tasks of constructing and proving the possibility of creating a CMR according to SRTM.

relief Digital Radar Geoction

List of sources used

1. Chrome V.V., Chrome O.V. Digital relief models. Tomsk: LLC Publishing House TML-Press, signed to press on December 15, 2007. Circulation 200 copies.

Ufimtsev G.F., Timofeev D.A "Morphology of Relief". Moscow: Scientific World. 2004

B.A. Novakovsky, S.V. Prasolov, A.I. Prasolov. "Digital model of relief of real and abstract geopoles." Moscow: Scientific World. 2003

A.S. Samardak "Geoinformation Systems". Vladivostok FNG, 2005-124c.

Geoprophy [ Electronic resource]: Journal of geodesy, cartography and navigation / Moscow. - Electronic magazine. - Access mode: # "Justify"\u003e. Branches of GIS [Electronic resource]: Database. - Access mode: # "Justify"\u003e. Vishnevskaya E.A., Yelobogeev A.V., Vysotsky E.M., Dobretsov E.N. Joint Institute of Geology, Geophysics and Mirelists of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk. From materials of the international conference "Intercrato - 6" (Apatity, August 22-24, 2000).

GIS Association [Electronic Resource]: Database. - Access mode: # "Justify"\u003e. GIS LAB Association [Electronic resource]: Database. - Access mode: # "Justify"\u003e 10. Jarvis A., H.I. Reuter, A. Nelson, E. Guevara, 2006, Hole-Filled Seamless SRTM Data V3, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)

11. A. M. Berlyant, A.V. East, V.I. Kravtsova, I.K. Lurie, T.G. Svatkova, B.B. Serapinas "Cartovsky". Moscow: Aspect of the press, 2003 - 477 p.

Mikhail Vladimirovich Morozov:
personal site

Mat.Model (occupation, Map-1): Building geochemical maps in Golden Software Surfer (General approach, stages and maintenance, report form)

Course " Mathematical methods of modeling in geology"

Maps-1. Building geochemical cards in Golden Software Surfer: general approach, stages and work content. Report form.
Maps-2. Principles of working with Golden Software Surfer.

To find the place of accumulation of the useful metal in the earth's crust, a geochemical map is required. How to build it? This requires good software and system approach. We will get acquainted with the principles and the main stages of this work.

THEORY

Building a geochemical card in the Golden Software Surfer program.

Initial data. To build a geochemical card must be prepared spreadsheetwhich contains, at a minimum, three columns: the first two contain the geographical coordinates of observation points (testing) x and y, the third column contains a pick-up value, for example, the content of the chemical element.

Coordinates: We use the Surfer program rectangular coordinates (in meters)Although various polar coordinates can also be chosen in the map properties of the map and various polar coordinates (in degrees-minutes-seconds). In practice, when working with images on a flat sheet, paper is more convenient to operate in the system of rectangular coordinates in the user format.

Where do the coordinates come from:
1. When the point is in place, the coordinates are taken from the top acceptance of GPS or GLONASS in the form of polar coordinates (for example, in the coordinate system WGS 84.). The top acceptor can now have a kind of smartphone, but more convenient and more reliable to use a special device, which is affectionately called "JipIea".
2. When transferring data to a computer from the top acceptor, the coordinates are converted from the polar to the rectangular coordinate system used (for example, in systems UTM., Pulkovo-1942.but can use and local The geodesic system adopted at a particular enterprise). To convert polar coordinates to rectangular convenient to use the program Ozi Explorer..
3. In the spreadsheet columns prepared for work with Surfer, rectangular coordinates in meters should be located.

Paged value: To build a training card in an isolated, we will use logarithm content any chemical element. Why logarithm? Because the law of distribution of microelements content is almost always logarithmic. Of course, in real work, first it is necessary to check the distribution law to choose the type of value: the initial value or its logarithm.

Types of cards used in geochemistry. In addition to the map in the isolated geochemists, some other types of cards are often used, but not all the great variety of types of cards that Surfer can build, but only strictly defined. They are listed below.

1. Fact card. It is a set of points showing the test location on the ground. About points you can display labels - picket numbers, but with geochemical search for points there are so many that usually tags only "litter" the space of the map and are not given. To build a fact card, use the function POST MAP..

2. Point card content of the chemical element. On it, circles (or other symbols) of different sizes are different content of the chemical element at the test points. If we use such a card, the individual fact card is no longer needed - the points of both cards will be put on top of each other. The point map (or "Map-Speakers") is built so that the high content of the desired element is thrown into the eye. The legend denotes the correspondence between the size of the circle and the content of the element in g / t. In addition to the size, the color of the mug may vary. Each type (size, color) mug corresponds to a manually assigned content range. Those. different types Circles are different classes of points on the contents of the element. Therefore, the tool for creating such a map is called Classed post map. It is convenient to build a map-handset over the map in an isolated, to see as the latter (which is a settlement card, i.e. built according to the results of data interpolation) is combined with the initial obtained from the laboratory, i.e. "True" content. It is convenient to apply the pavement of one important element (for example, gold) on the map in the isolated search parameter (satellite element, statistical factor, geophysical parameter, etc.). IMPORTANT: After building a CLASSED POST MAP type, you cannot convert to POST MAP, on the contrary, it is also impossible.

3. Map in isolated. Actually map of the desired parameter, where different content gradations are displayed with different color fills. Also requires a legend that binds the color of the fill with the level of content. The gradations of the fills are adjusted manually. Tool - Contour map. In addition to the contents of the elements (or their logarithms) in geochemistry, maps of multi-element indicators are widely used. These can be multiplicative coefficients (where the content of several elements are variable), the cards of the values \u200b\u200bof the factor (the main component), and the like. Actually, the task of geochemistry is to find an indicator that allows you to solve the geological task. Since soon, such indicators are usually expressed in the collective behavior of the elements, it is quite natural that mono-element cards (i.e., the maps of one separately taken element) are often less informative than polyelectric. Therefore, the stage of constructing cards is usually preceded by a step of statistical data processing to obtain the results of multidimensional statistical analysis, for example, MGC (Method of the main component).

4. Card stroke. By default, SURFER creates a rectangular card. In the event that the testing points do not form a rectangle, it turns out that the area of \u200b\u200btesting is inscribed in an artificially created rectangle, in which part of the area in reality was not tested. The map in the isolated jet will be built on the entire area, so unobiled parts of the card will contain fictitious data. To avoid this, you need to limit the area of \u200b\u200bconstructing a map by the part of the area to which these testing is available. For this, the test area needs to be overtaken by a special line that can be built manually. The output of the stroke loop is carried out by means of a function. Base Map..

Stages of building a map.

3. Building a map of the fact [Map-3]. 5. Building a point map ("Map-Post") [Map-5]. 9. Construction of the surface map and its design to achieve optimal informative [Map-6, continued].

Procedure for performing work

Dano: Table of the contents of the chemical element and its logarithms with the coordinates of test points.

The task:

1. Build a map of the facts.

2. Build a point map for the contents of the chemical element, select Display points for different classes.

3. On your own mapping area contour and build it.

4. Align the contour of the area, point map of the element and the facts card in this order in the object manager. Display a legend for a point card.

5. Construct a grid file ("Grid") for the logarithms of the element content by the method of triangulation, check it. Repeat by other methods.

6. Build a varioogram for building a grid file by ciging, check it out.

7. Build a grid file ("Grid") for the logarithms of the content of the ciging using the parameters of the varioogram.

8. Smooth the resulting grid file with a simple filter.

9. Restore the grid file from logarithms in content.

10. Trim the grid file for the contour created earlier.

11. Build surface cards in the isolated and gradient fill on the created grid files, add legends.

12. Export constructed maps as JPG files, insert into a Word format (DOC) report.

Report form.

Geological section

Geological section - the vertical section of the earth's crust from the surface in the depth. Geological cuts are compiled according to geological cards, data of geological observations and mountain workouts (including drilling wells), geophysical studies, etc. Geological cuts oriented mainly accresitudes or extended geological structures on direct or broken lines passing in the presence of deep reference Drilling wells through these wells. The conditions of the occurrence, the age and composition of rocks are provided on geological cuts. The horizontal and vertical scales of geological cuts usually correspond to the scale of the geological map. When designing mining enterprises, engineering and geological surveys due to the incomparable capacity of loose sediments and length of profiles, their vertical scale is increased compared to horizontal to dozens or more times.

Surfer in geology

The GOLDEN Software Surfer geo-information system is currently a sectoral standard for building graphic images of two variables features. There is little enterprises in the geological industry that would not use Surfer in their daily practice when building maps. Especially often with the help of Surfer, cards are created in the isolated (contour cards).

The unsurpassed advantage of the program is the interpolation algorithms that allow with the highest quality to create digital surface models by unevenly distributed in the data space. The most frequently used method - Kriging is ideal for presenting data in all sciences of Earth.

The logic of working with the package can be represented as three main functional blocks:

• · 1. Constructing a digital surface model;
• · 2. Auxiliary operations with digital surface models;
• · 3. Visualization of the surface.

The digital surface model is traditionally presented in the form of values \u200b\u200bin the nodes of the rectangular regular mesh, the discreteness of which is determined depending on the specific task being solved. To store such Surfer values, uses its own GRD type (binary or text format), which have long been standard for mathematical modeling packages.

Perhaps three options for obtaining values \u200b\u200bin the grid nodes:

• · 1) According to the source data specified in arbitrary points of the region (in the unregular mesh nodes), using algorithms for interpolation of two-dimensional functions;
• · 2) Calculate the values \u200b\u200bof the function specified by the user explicitly. The SURFER program includes a fairly wide range of functions - trigonometric, breastless, exponential, statistical and other others;
• · 3) The transition from one regular grid to another, for example, when changing the mesh discreteness (here, sufficiently simple interpolation and smoothing algorithms are used, as it is believed that the transition is performed from one smooth surface to another).

In addition, of course, you can use the finished digital surface model obtained by the user, for example, as a result of numerical simulation.

The Surfer package offers its users a few interpolation algorithms: Crygov (Kriging), the degree of reverse distance (Inverse Distance to A Power), minimizing the curvature (Radial Basis Functions), polynomial regression (Polynomial Regression), modified method Shepard (modified shepard "s method), triangulation (triangulation) and others. Calculation of a regular grid can be performed for data sets x, y, z of any size, and the grid itself may have a size of 10,000 per 10,000 nodes.

In Surfer, the following types of cards are used as the main image items:

• · 1. Contour map (Contour Map). In addition to the usual means of controlling the output modes of insulating, axes, frames, markup, legends, etc. There is the possibility of creating cards with the help of fill with color or various patterns of individual zones. In addition, the image of a flat card can be rotated and tilt, use independent scaling over x and y axes.
• · 2. Three-dimensional surface image: Wireframe map (frame card), Surface Map (three-dimensional surface). For such cards are used different types projections, while the image can be rotated and tilt using simple graphic interface. You can also apply cutting lines, isolated, set independent scaling over the X, Y, Z axes, to fill out separate grid elements of the surface with color or pattern.
• · 3. POST MAP). These cards are used to image point data as special characters and text signatures for them. At the same time, to display a numeric value at the point, you can control the size of the symbol (linear or quadratic dependence) or apply various characters in accordance with the data range. Building one card can be performed using multiple files.
• · 4. Map - Base Map. It can be almost any flat image obtained by importing files of various graphic formats: AutoCAD [.dxf], Windows MetaFile [.wmf], Bitmap Graphics [.tif], [.bmp], [.pcx], [.gif ], [.Jpg] and some others. These cards can be used not only for simple image output, but also, for example, for the output of some areas empty.

With the help of various options for overlaying these basic types of cards, their different placement on one page can be obtained a variety of options for presenting complex objects and processes. In particular, it is very easy to get a variety of options for complex maps with a combined image of the distribution of several parameters at once. All types of cards The user can edit the embedded tools for drawing the Surfer itself.

The method of constructing structural cards of the roof (soles) of the oil reservoir and its geological cut.

• 1. Based on the file to build a base map on a scale of 1 cm 1000 meters.
• 2. Digit the borders of the license area.
• 3. digitize wells and save in DAT format File "Roof" (column A - longitude, column B - latitude, column C - depth of roofing, column D - Well number, column C - well type: operating with three-digit number, other - exploration)
• 4. Digit a profile line. Save in BLN format "Profile Line" with an empty cell B1.
• 5. Create a "Overview Card of the Licensed Point" with layers - borders, line profile and wells with signatures.
• 6. Add a layer "Structural map on the roofing map of YUS2" - smoothed (with a coefficient 3 for two coordinates), isolated 5 meters (Appendix 1).
• 7. Create a "profile on the roof of the UUS2" - the scale horizontal coincides with the map scale, the scale is vertical in 1 cm 5 meters.

geological Map Profile Software

Package software Surfer. Designed to create, edit, view, storing and modifying all types of cards and digital regular meshes heights. Package software Surfer. consists of several independent subroutines related to each other through the main program ( Plot Windows ) .

WORKSHEET Windows (project window) - The project window contains a work area to create, view, edit, and save data files. Data can be created in the questionnaire various paths. When creating a project window, you can upload data files into a notebook using the command. Open. from the project file menu; You can directly dial data into the questionnaire, or use the window Clipboard. (Buffer) To copy data from another application and paste into it.

EDITOR Windows (editor window) - The editor window contains a work area to create, view, edit, and save ASCII text files. With an active window, all the necessary menus are available for working with ASCII text files.

The text created in the editor window can be copied and inserted into the picture window. (Plot Windows) . This allows you to create text blocks that can be saved in the ASCII text file and used on other maps, and not to recreate the text whenever it is necessary for work. You can apply text to the editor window and save the file on the disk. In order to use this text in the window Plot, you need to open a text file in the editor window, copy the text on Buffer , And insert text into the picture window.

Another feature of the editor window - calculating the volume by the command VOLUME. (Volume). When the volume is calculated, a new editor window is created, with the results of computing volume. The results of calculating the volume can be copied to the window. Plot Or save in the ASCII text file.

To open the editor window, you must select the command. New From the menu File and choose the option in the window Editor(Editor).

GS Script (GS scripter) - This is the second independent program in the package. Surfer.. GS script allows you to record macros to automate the tasks in the program Surfer..

Program GS scripter. Like a translator that downloads and executes commands. GS script is automatically installed, when executing the installation of the program Surfer.And has its own icon.

GS Centralias consists of two windows. Window Editing It is a standard text editor of Windows ASCII, which allows you to open, create, edit and save ASCII text files. Scripts are performed in the GS script window Editing. Second - Day off The window is displayed only when calling from the edit window.

Scripts are text files created in the editor window, notepad of Windows, or any other ASCII editor. You can execute the script when the script file is displayed in the window GS Editing script. Operations defined in the scripts will be performed. Scripts may contain commands necessary to automatically execute any OLE 2.0 programs.

Plot Windows (Picture window) - The image window contains commands to create and modify the height grid files, and to create all types of cards. This is the main window of the program, so this chapter will most fully reflect the features of this window.

The menu of the Figure window contains the following commands that allow you to create and edit various types of cards.

File (file) - Contains commands to open and save files, print cards or surfaces, changes in the type of printing and opening new windows of the document.

New (New)- Creates a new document window. Team New Creates a new window Plot (Picture) , Worksheet (project) or Editor (editor). Keyboard shortcut: Ctrl + N.

Open. (Open) - Opens an existing document. Team Open. I search for existing project files and shows them in a new picture window. At the same time, the new window is made active. If [.srf] file has the same data file, it will boot into the project under the same name. Surfer. [.Srf] The file itself does not contain data, it contains only the name of the data file that is loaded when creating a map. If [.srf] file has been saved, containing the name of a data file that no longer exists, then when you open it, an error message appears. The only type of file that can be opened by a team Open. In the menu graphics window FileThis is only [.srf] file. Other file types are opened in other items of the main menu. CTRL + O. key combination

Close. (Close) - Closes the active document window.

Save. (Save) - Saves an active document. Team Save. Used, to save changes made in [.srf] file, and leaves the saved document displayed on the screen. When saving the previous version of the file with the same name is replaced with this version. CTRL + S key combination

Worksheet. (Project) - Shows the project window. Team Worksheet. Opens a new empty project window. The project window is used to display, enter, or correct data. To display data, you must first open an empty project window, and only then open an existing file by selecting the Open command in the Worksheet File menu.

Import (Import) - Imports borders, metafiles and point graphs. Team Import Like a team Load.B.aSEM.ap. Except that the file is being imported rather as an integral object than as a map. Composite objects are made from various objects that were grouped together into a single object. To divide the composite object on its individual parts, you must use the command Break Apart.. For example, when a file containing several polygons is imported (the file is originally a single object made of these multiple polygons), the use of the Break Apart team leads to the fact that each polygon becomes a separate object. This occurs the ability to change each polygon separately. Team Import can import files of any type on command Load.B.aSEM.aP (Download Basic Card).

Export (Export) - Exports to various file formats. Team Export Allows you to export a file in various formats for use by other programs. This allows you to create AutoCAD files [.dxf], Windows metafile [.wmf], cut-off buffer windows images [.Clp], or computer graphics metafile [.cgm], as well as some raster formats. You can export the full contents of the pattern window, or select specific cards or objects for export.

Print (Print) - Prints an active document on the installed printer. Key combination: Ctrl + P.

Print Setup. (Print Setup) - Shows the list of installed printers and allows you to select a printer.

Page Layout. (Layout layout stripes) - Changes the set parameters of the strip. Teams Page Layout. Manage the page display on the screen and the picture orientation on the print page. With it, the page size is set to comply with the size of the paper for the installed output device.

Options. (Choice) - Control of the display of characteristics, selection, and page blocks.

Default. Settings (Teams "Default") - Creates a set [.set] of files that control the disadvantage of the display and apply the installation grid. Team DEFAULT SETTINGS Allows you to download, change, and save the [.set] file set. Surfer. Deals the coordinate grid and displays the default command based on reading information in [.set] file. The set file contains a list of coordinate grid, display and common settings of the dialog box that are used during a session. Surfer..

EXIT (Output) - exit from Surfer.. Finishes your session in the program Surfer..If part Surfer. Currently is in the buffer of the cut image, it is converted to one of the standard Windows formats. Keyboard key: F3, or ALT + F4.

Edit (edit) - Contains editing commands and commands to edit objects.

UNDO (Cancel) - Removes the last change made in the picture window. Cancel can completely change the slightly changeback, allowing you to copy several steps. CTRL + Z keys combination.

Redo (do anew) - Fully cancels the last command Undo. Redocan completely cancel several cancellation commands, allowing you to remake some steps.

Cut. (Cut)- Removes selected objects and places them in the clipboard. This command is not available if nothing is selected. At the same time, selected objects are erased after copying them to the buffer. Later, the content can be inserted by a command. Paste. Keyboard shortcut: Ctrl + x or Shift + Delete.

Copy (Copy) - Copies selected objects to the buffer. This command is not available if nothing is selected. Objects of the original remain unchanged. This command can be used to duplicate objects for other location in the same window, or in another window or for other applications. Only one set of data can be placed in the buffer, the following command Cut. or Copy Replaces the contents of the buffer. Keyboard shortcut: Ctrl + C or Ctrl + Insert.

Paste (Insert) - Places a copy of the contents of the buffer in the active document window. This command is not available if the buffer of the cut image is empty. Keyboard shortcut: Ctrl + V or SHIFT + INSERT.

Paste Special (Special insert) - Specifies the cutting buffer formats to use when inserting objects into the picture window. Inserts are available four formats: GS Surfer., Bitmap, Picture or TEXT..

Format GS Surfer. We are interested in inserting objects copied from a graphic window Surfer.. Format GS Surfer. Copies objects in their native format. For example, if a structural card is copied to the buffer, and inserted into another picture window in the format GS Surfer.The inserted structural card can be mounted, and will be identical to the original in all respects.

Format objects Bitmapexist like rasters. Raster dimensions are difficult to change without impairment, also limited colors. This format is relatively general and supported by most other Windows applications.

Format Picture - Windows metafile format, where objects exist as a series of Windows components. Metafile can be changed without a deforming image. Format Picture Supported by most Windows applications.

Format TEXT. Uses import text. Imported text may contain any number of rows, and may include mathematical text commands. Imported text uses the default text value by attributing the attributes using the command Text attributes..

Delete. (Erase) - erases selected objects. Team Delete. Deletes all selected objects from the pattern window, including any maps, parameters, drawings, or text. Team Delete. does not affect the contents of the buffer of the cut image. Keyboard key: delete.

SELECT All. (Select all) - Selects all objects in the active window. She chooses all objects on the Picture window page. Around the external part of the group are markers 1 selection. Keyboard key: F2.

Block SELECT (Block selection) - Objects are selected within the specified rectangle. Team Block Select. Allows you to allocate all objects contained within the user-defined rectangle. The rectangle must completely surround Objects, then only they will be selected. If this command is not selected, then all objects, any part of them falling within the limiting rectangle 2, will be selected.

Flip. Selections (Mirror reflection choice) - Selects unbearable objects, cancels the selection of selected objects. This command is useful for selecting a large number of objects and leaving several isolated unwanted objects.

Object. Id (Identification object) - assigns identification to the selected object. Team Object ID Allows you to assign a name to any type of object, including maps and card parameters. The assigned identification acts in the status bar when choosing this object.

Reshape (Restore the initial form) - Changes existing polygons or broken lines. Restores the initial forming, new records, and erases the vertex from the selected broken line or polygon. Each string segment in a polygon or broken line is defined by two vertices, each of which indicates the endpoints of the string segment. Team Reshape Allows you to change the shape of the polygon or the broken line, moving or erasing the vertex, and thus changing the string segments that determine the polygon or the broken line.

After selection ReshapeAll vertices in the selected polygon or broken line are designated with hollow squares. The selected vertex is indicated by a black square. The selected peak can be moved by moving the mouse. To erase the selected vertex, you must press the DEL key. To insert a vertex, press the Ctrl key, while the circle with the crosshairs, which must be moved to the place where the vertex must be inserted.

Color Palette (Color palette) - allows you to change the color palette Surfer.. Colors used in the program Surfer. Created by mixing various quantities of red, green and blue. number Red, Green and Saint The colors are added or deducted from each of the colors according to your desire when using the command. MIX RGB.. Color change is shown on the right in the typical block. The range of color numbers is formed from 0 to 255. Edit window Name. Changes the name used for the selected color, or the name of any traditional color created. Button Append (add) Creates new record Created color at the end of the color palette. Button INSERT (Insert) Adds the created color to the color palette in the position of the selected color in the palette. Button REPLACE (replacement) Replaces the selected color in the color palette on the changed color.

VIEW (View) - Contains commands that control the view of the current document window.

Page (Page) - Scales the graphic window to the full page. Team Page Increases or reduces the density view in the picture window, so that the full page is displayed. The page format is settled by the team Page Layout. From the menu File.

Fit to Window (landing in the window) - Scales the document so that it corresponds to the window limits. Team Fit to Window Changes the increase in all objects in the current pattern window in such a way that they are placed within the windows borders, providing a user with the possibility of changing the maximum level of a maximum scale that allows all objects to be seen in the active image window.

Actual Size. (True size) - Scales the document to the true size. Team Actual Size. Changes the window zoom to show the resulting true scale. For example, Full Screen (Fullscreen) - Restores the view of the screen to a full-screen representation. The command after this command is selected, one inch on the screen is equated with one inches on the printed page when printing 100%.

Full Screen. Allows you to consider the map without the characteristics of the picture window. When this command is selected, the map and all related objects are re-displayed on the screen, but the window characteristics are not output. At the same time, it is impossible to install a map, however, such a view provides a user with objective information about the form of a map being created. To return to the original form you need to click on any keyboard button or the mouse button.

Zoom Rectangle (Rectangle Image Scale) - unfolds the selected area, thereby filling the whole window. Team Zoom Rectangle. Increases part of the picture window. This command is useful for the performance of the detailed work on the specific area of \u200b\u200bthe picture window, as it opens the areas and allows you to perform work in a modified scale in the field of view.

Zoom In (open) - The card is presented in twice the current scale. Team Zoom In. doubles the magnification within the window. The team also center the window on the point of interest. To enlarge part of the picture window, you must press the tool Zoom In. on the toolbar, or choose a command Zoom In.from the menu VIEW., and a pointer appears that denotes the method of increasing (plus). Install the pointer on the area or object that must be centered during the image zoom. When you press the mouse button, the presentation will increase with the coefficient of two, and the point of interest will appear in the center of the window.

Zoom Out (Close) - The card appears in half the current scale. Team Zoom Out. Allows you to reduce the image of the window twice, and like the team Zoom in Also centers the window on the point of interest.

Zoom selected (Change the scale of the image selected) - Fills the window selected object. Team Zoom selected changes the magnification, so that the selected objects receive maximum sizePOSSIBLE in the picture window, with their full mapping.

REDRAW (redrawing) - redraws the document. Team Redraw. Clears the active window and redraws all objects from the back to the front side. This command is used to remove unwanted residues or "mud" that sometimes occur during operation. It also allows you to see and place objects hidden behind other objects, because they are output. You can reordering objects using commands Move to BACK and MOVE TO FRONT (backstore).

AUTO REDRAW (Auto Redrawing) - Automatically redraws the card, each time a change is done. Team AUTO REDRAW Used to automatically redraw cards, each time a change is done. When AUTO REDRAWdisabled, you can use the F5 or command key Redraw.To redraw a map.

Draw (output) - Creates text blocks, polygons, broken lines, symbols, and forms.

Text (text) - Creates a text block. Team TEXT. Places the text of new entries anywhere in the picture window. You can change the existing text block, pressing twice on it. This allows you to edit the text, or change the font, point size, style, color, and linearization for the selected text. Text can be moved and changed using the mouse, and can rotate using commands ROTATE (Rotation), or FREE ROTATE (free rotation) on the menu Arrange (accommodation).

To change the attributes of several text blocks at one time, you must select all text blocks that will be changed, and then select the command Text attributes.. Changes made in the window Text attributes.will be applied to all selected text blocks.

Text blocks may include special non-printable codes (called Math Text Instructions (Mathematical Text Commands))which change the text attributes of the string, such as the type of font, size, color, and style (bold, italics, crossing and underlined), within the only text block. Mathematical text teams are useful for accommodating mathematical equations on the map, or creating customized axes using mixed Greek and Roman characters.

Polygon (Polygon) - Creates a closed polygon. Team Polygon. Used to create a closed multilateral form. Polygons can display any sample filler and line style. Polygon attributes can be changed by double pressing on the completed polygon. Holding the CTRL key limits the placement of the vertex, the lined line segments are limited to 45 degree increments of the angle. Pressing the right mouse button removes the last vertex of the polygon. Pressing the ESC allows you to get out of the way without complete the current polygon. If the cursor touches the window boundary when creating a landfill, Surfer. Automatically moves the image.

Polyline (broken line) - creates a broken line. Team Polyline Used to hold a line in any position on the page. Lines drawn in this way can have as many segments as needed. Loars lines can display any type of line or color and may include arrows - pointers from both ends of the broken line. The attributes of the broken line can be changed by double pressing on the finished broken line.

SYMBOL (Symbol) - Creates a centered symbol. Team Symbol. Used to set the character at a specific position on the page. When choosing a team Symbol., or icons of a symbol in the toolbar, you can press the mouse button in the position where you need to appear to appear. The attributes of the symbol may be subsequently changed, double-clicking on the symbol.

The default symbol can be changed using the command Symbol.When nothing is chosen. Each created character, after the default value changes, uses a new character.

When you need to specify several characters, you need to press the symbol icon twice. After the symbol tool is selected, the user remains in the symbol method, which allows you to create so many characters as needed, without returning to the menu or to the toolbar each time.

Rectangle (Rectangle) - Creates a rectangle. Team Rectangle. Used to create a filled rectangle or square in the specified position on the page. Filling and type of line can be changed by double pressing on a finished rectangle.

Getting a rectangle. To display a rectangle, you must press the mouse button in any carbon of the future rectangle, and move the mouse to increase the size of the rectangle. Holding the Shift key, when receiving a rectangle, leads to the fact that the initial item becomes the center of the rectangle ..

Obtaining a square. To remove the square, it is necessary to hold the Ctrl key when receiving a rectangle, and the square will take place with the initial item as when building a rectangle.

Rounded Rect (Round Rectangle) - Creates a rounded rectangle. The Rounded RECT command is used to create a completed rounded rectangle in the specified position on the page. Getting a rounded rectangle and Obtaining a rounded square identically similar methods for producing a simple rectangle (square).

Ellipse (Ellipse) - Creates an ellipse. The ELLIPSE command is used to create a filled ellipse or filled circle at the specified position on the page. Getting an ellipse and Getting a circle identically similar ways to produce a rectangle (square).

Line attributes. (Line attributes) - Change the default line attributes or attributes of the lines of selected objects. Allows you to change the type, color and thickness of the lines of selected objects, or set the attribute value for the objects created.

Fill attributes. (Pouring Attributes) - Changes the default setting attributes, replenishes attributes or replenishes the attributes of selected objects.

Text attributes. (Text Attributes) - Changes default text attributes or attributes of the selected text.

Symbol attributes. (Symbol attributes)- Changes the default symbol attributes or attributes of the selected symbol.

Arrange (streamlining) - Contains commands that control the streamlining and orientation of objects.

Move to Front (Moving forward) - Selected objects appear in front of other objects.

Move to Back (Move back) - Selected objects protrude behind other objects.

Combine. (Connect) - connects together the selected objects.

Break Apart. (Divided) - splits into individual components selected objects.

Rotate. (Rotation) - Rates the selected object around the specified angle.

FREE ROTATE. (Free rotation) - Rotates the object using the mouse.

Align Objects (Align Objects) - Objects are aligned within the restrictive rectangle.

Gri. d. (Coordinate grid) - Contains commands to create and modify the coordinate grid file.

Data (Data) - Builds a regular grid of points with a given step by x and via Y in a rectangle bounded by the coordinate lines, (file with the [.grd] extension) from the X, Y, Z data set. The grid file is required to build a structural map or surface schedule, or to execute any actions requiring a mesh file, such as a mathematical grid, calculating volumes and areas, smoothing or mathematical calculation of mesh residues. The initial data of the X and Y coordinates collected in the irregular form in the area of \u200b\u200bthe map area, Surfer. Interpables on a regular rectangular grid in the [.grd] format file.

Mesh construct parameters can be monitored. Data Columns.allows you to define columns for x, y and z values \u200b\u200bin the data file. Grid Line Geometry. Allows you to determine the limits and density of the grid. Editing window X. and Y. DIRECTION. Allow the various mesh limits, and determine the density of the coordinate grid lines in both directions. Gridding Methods. Allows you to determine the method used in interpolating the grid values, and resolve certain parameters of this method.

FUNCTION (FUNCTION) - Builds the [.grd] grid file, according to the user-defined function. Team Function. Allows you to create a mesh file from the user-defined equation of two variables Z \u003d.f.(X, y)using any of the mathematical functions available for the program Surfer..

Math (Mathematics) - Builds the mesh file [.grd], performing mathematical actions above the existing grid. Math. Mathematically mixes the values \u200b\u200bof the mesh nodes of two grid files that use the same coordinate values. This command creates an output mesh file based on a specific mathematical function function. C \u003d.f.(A, B)where C is the output grid file, A and B represent the source mesh files. A specific function is performed on the respective mesh nodes with the same X and Y values. Function Math. It can also be performed on a single grid or USGS DEM file. In this case, the same mathematical expression applied to all nodes of the source grid.

Calculus (calculus) - Provides selection of the data interpolation used to apply the coordinate grid. Team Grid Calculus. It helps to define quantitative characteristics in the grid file that are not visualing when viewing the contour or three-dimensional type of map.

MATRIX SMOOTH (smoothing matrix) - smoothes the grid using the smoothing matrix algorithm. Matrix Smoothcalculates the new values \u200b\u200bof the grid nodes by averaging method or by the method of weighted reverse industries. At the same time, unwanted "noise" or small-scale information is cut, which is available in the original mesh file. The smoothed grid file has the same limits and contains the same number of grid nodes as a source file.

SPLINE SMOOTH (spline - smoothing) - smoothes the grid using the algorithm smoothing with splines. To calculate nodes, cubic spline interpolation is used. Cubic spline interpolation uses a method of drawing a slot using a smooth curve between signs - symbols. Row segments between adjacent signs - symbols can be represented by a cubic equation.

There are two ways of smoothing with splines: the extension of the grid or the re-calculation. When the grid is extended, the nodes are inserted between existing nodes in the original grid. If the grid is calculated again, all nodes in the aligned grid are recalculated.

Blank (whitening) - Creates a clean section of the grid in the [.grd] file on the existing grid [.grd] - the file on the border specified in [.bln] file. To use the team Blank A grid files are required [.grd] or USGS DEM [.bln] overlap file, which must be created before the overlap operation is executed. The grid file is created using the command. Data.And the overlap file can be created in and saved in the project window.

The border can be assigned to the area inside or out of the overlap bound. The closed grid contains the same number of items, the same coordinates and the same limits as the original mesh file. Elements in the output grid are identical to the values \u200b\u200bin the input grid except those where the overlap value is placed.

Convert (Conversion) - Team Convert. Allows you to pay a binary (binary) messet of the [.grd] file to the ASCII grid file or vice versa, or refund the USGS Dem file in ASCII or in a binary (binary) mesh file. You can also contact the mesh file or USGS DEM file to the X, Y, Z file. When creating a data file, all mesh nodes are listed in separate columns, with x coordinate in column A, coordinate Y in column B, and z values \u200b\u200bin column C. Format GS.Binary. (* .Grd) Little size than the ASCII grid file and takes a smaller amount of disk space. Format GS ASCII (* .grd) Allows you to change the file using the questionnaire Surfer. Or any ASCII editor that allows you to process a large file. Format ASCII XYZ (* .dat) Allows you to get the X, Y, Z file file from the grid file [.grd].

Extract (Extraction) - Creates a grid file that is a subset of an existing mesh file. Subsets can be based on some rows and rows from the grid input file. In this case, you can use the step ratio that skips the specified number of rows and rows when information is read from the original grid. Thus, the grid density can be reduced.

Transform (Transform) - Changes the position of the XY coordinates of the grid node within the mesh file. Team Transform Does not change the Z values \u200b\u200bcontained in the grid file, but only the position of z values \u200b\u200bwithin the mesh file. Teams Transformuse shift, scaling, rotation or mirror reflection of the mesh node values \u200b\u200bwithin the mesh file. Option Offset. Allows you to add or deduct the specified X or Y offset. Option Scale Allows you to change the scale. Option Rotate. Allows you to rotate the grid with a coefficient of 90. Options Mirror X. and Mirror Y. Create a mirror image of Extremum X and Y, respectively.

VOLUME. (Volume) - Performs the calculation of the volume and area between the [.grd] file grid nodes. Team VOLUME. It can calculate the volume of the entire surface and the volume of cutting, as well as the difference between the two grids. The team also calculates the surface area. The greater the grid density, the more accurately the calculations will be made.

Slice (slice) - Produces a profile string from the [.grd] mesh and file borders. The terrain profile data file is created based on the [.grd] surface file and [.bln] overlap file.

Residuals (residues) - Calculates the difference between the [.grd] grids surface values \u200b\u200band the values \u200b\u200bof the original data. Team Residuals. Calculates the vertical difference between signs - symbols and the coordinate surface grid. The residue is the difference between the value z point in the data file and the interpolate value Z at the same point (x, y) placed on the applied surface. Team Residuals. It can give a quantitative measure of the difference between the grid file and the original data, or can be used to determine the values \u200b\u200bZ at any point of the mesh (x, y).

Calculations are made according to the formula: Zres \u003d ZDAT - ZGRD where Zres is a residual difference; ZDAT - value Z in the data file; ZGRD - Z value in the mesh file.

In order to obtain statistical information regarding the calculated residual impurities, you must use the command Statistics on the menu Worksheet Compute..

Grid Node Editor (Grid Knot Editor) - Allows you to change the individual grid nodes in the [.grd] file grid. In the window Grid Node EditorThe position of the grid nodes is indicated by the "+" sign. The active vertex is displayed for which the new Z can enter.

Map (Map) - Contains commands to create and change cards.

Load Basemap (Download Main Card) - Creates a main map from the boundary file, metafile, or point chart file. Team Load Basemap Imports a boundary card to use it as the main one. Basic maps can be independent of other cards in the window. Plot, or can be mixed with other maps (using the team Overlay Maps.).

Contour (horizontal) - creates a structural map from the grid file or Dem file ( Figure 3.1). The structural card is a graph based on x, y, z in the grid file or the Dem file. The horizontal is determined by Z values, or, in other words, the step cross segment of the relief. The mesh file contains a series of z values \u200b\u200brecorded on a regular separation matrix (x, y) of placement. When a structural card is created, the grid file is interpreted. Horizontals are displayed as a straight line segments between the coordinate grid lines in the mesh file. The point where the horizontal crosses the coordinate grid line is based on interpolation between z values \u200b\u200bin neighboring grid nodes. When creating a map of heights, you can control the type, thickness and color of the lines, as well as the color of the fill between horizontals.

POST (post) - Creates a map, showing the placement of data points. POST cards can cover structural maps, allowing you to apply the necessary symbols of the original on the map, or other information about the placement of the point. On the tag used on the map, you can assign text attributes. Text attributes).

CLASSED POST (classified post) - Creates a map, showing the location of data points based on other data areas. Team Classed Post. Allows you to apply the points using various characters for different registered data ranges ( Fig. 3.2).

Image (image) - Creates a raster map image from the grid file or Dem file. Raster cards use different colors to display the increasing area. Colors on maps are associated with exceeding values. The color, 0% brightness is transmitted to the value of a minimum z in the mesh file, and the color, 100% brightness is transmitted to the maximum value of Z. Surfer. Automatically mixes the color between the mesh values, so that the outcome of the work is smooth graduation of color on the map. Each point can be assigned a unique color, and in this case the colors are automatically mixed between adjacent points. Image K.arts can change the scale, change the boundaries or move in the same way as other types of cards, however, they cannot rotate or tilt and cannot be mixed with a surface card ( Figure 3.3).

Shaded Relief (Shaded Relief) - creates a shaded relief map from the grid file or Dem file. Shaded relief cards - raster cardsbased on the mesh file or Dem file. These cards use different colors to indicate the area of \u200b\u200bterrain and the inclined direction relative to the user-defined direction of the light source. Surfer. Determines the orientation of each cell of the grid on the surface, and assigns a unique color to each cell of the grid. Since the colors are assigned to the grid cells, this command does not make sense to use on grids with a large step.

Colors on shaded relief maps are associated with percentage of incident light. About the light source can be thought of as a sun, luminous on topographic surface. The maximum color (100%) is assigned there, where the rays are perpendicular to the surface.

Surface (Surface) - Creates a surface schedule from the grid file or Dem file. Surface schedule is three-dimensional file presentation

grids that can be displayed with any combination of strings x, y or z.

When constructing a surface, you can set the parameters of its display (line x, y or z, the colors of the fill, etc.).

Show - Manages the parameter display on the selected map or overlee. Team Show. Includes or disables the parameter display on the selected map. The lavetled parameters in the command list are displayed on the map.

Edit (Editing) - Manages the axis parameters for the selected axis. Team Axis Edit. Allows you to settle all parameters for the selected axis. Sets the maximum and minimum axis value, as well as the interval between the values.

Scale - Manages the scaling of the selected axis. Team AXIS SCALE. Determines the limits of the axis, the distance between the tags along the axis, the position of the selected axis relative to other parameters on the map or surface graphics.

Grid Lines (Coordinate Mesh Lines) - Manages the display of the lines of the coordinate grid on the map.

Scale Bar (Linear Scale) - Creates a linear scale. The ruler is divided into four equal parts and can be scaled to any user-defined parameters. By default, the scale is scaled relative to the x axis.

Background (background) - Manages the card background, aligns and replenishes attributes. The map background limits coincide with the axis limits on the circuit, and with the basis on the surface graphics.

Digitize (digitize) - reads the coordinates from the card and writes them into the data file. When using this command, moving the cursor across the selected map of the X and Y coordinate for the current mouse position is shown in the status bar. When you press the left key, the coordinates of the current point are written to the data file.

3D View (three-dimensional presentation) - controls the rotation and tilt of the selected card or overlay ( Fig. 3.5). Team 3D viewspecifies

card orientation in the picture window. Maps can be rotated relative to the Z axis, control its inclination and promising overview. The three-dimensional rotation command can be applicable to all selected cards simultaneously.

This option allows you to consider the image in two projections: a promising, creating visual result, as a result of which the size of the surface varies with the distance from the browser, and the orthographic projection of the surface to the plane, when parallel lines remain parallel. This projection is set by default for surface graphs or other cartographic representations.

Scale - Manages the scale for the selected card or overlay. Team Scale Determines how to scale the map blocks relative to the page blocks in the window Plot. By default, scaling is done so that the longest side of the map, X or Y axis equals 6 inches. When building surface graphs, the same rules are performed relative to X and Y, and the z axis is scaled to be 1.5 inches long, regardless of the number of blocks along the Z axis.

Limits - Determines the length of the selected card or overlay. You must use the command Limits.To identify the limits of x and y values. This command is useful for partially displaying the map represented, but it cannot be applied to the surface cards.

Stack Maps (Stack of Map) - imposes on each other and lines the selected maps on the page. Using this command is useful when you need to arrange two or more surface in the stack, or a structural map on the surface. To use this command, it is necessary that the selected maps should have the same limits of X and Y, use the same three-dimensional representation, and they must be displayed approximately in a vertical position on the page where they need to perform.

Overlay Maps (overlays) - connects the selected maps into one layer. Team Overlay Maps. Mixes two or more cards into a single map included with a single set of parameters X, Y, and Z. Overlay programs may contain any number Basemap, contour cards, POST.or Classed Post.maps, but may contain only one surface schedule.

Edit Overlays (overlay editing programs) - Supplies you with control over the components of the overlay. Team Edit Overlays. Allows you to easily select any of the objects in the window. Any card can be removed from the overlay, except for the surface drawing.

These are the main functionality of the program Surfer.we used when performing the experimental part of the graduation project.

Mikhail Vladimirovich Morozov:
personal site

Mat.Model (occupation, Map-2): Principles of working with Golden Software Surfer

Course " Mathematical methods of modeling in geology"

Golden Software Surfer is the world's leading software for the construction of spatial models of numerical variables, such as the values \u200b\u200bof the geophysical or geochemical field, etc. This chapter will help start working with the program, avoiding typical mistakes novice.

PRACTICE

Acquaintance with the Surfer program from Golden Software

Purpose of software in a nutshell: Build on the desired scale of the numerical parameter (in any external execution - dots, isolines, color gradations, like a 3D surface, like a vector field) and arrange it for the presentation.

What does not do the program: Surfer is a program to build digital surface models in a specified parameter. It is not suitable for "coloring", i.e. To create a card showing the mutual location of point, linear and square objects, as drawing (i.e., geographical, political and other similar cards). To create such cards, other software requires (ArcInfo, MapInfo and MN. Dr.).

What does Surfer look like. The program toolkit consists of two parts: (1) mathematical part - To create and analyze the surface map - a unique powerful program that has analogs (for example, Oasis.); (2) design part similar to any program to create vector graphicwhich allows you to create lines and other objects, and then individually modify them (the leaders in this field - Corel Draw., Adobe Illustrator ), in terms of drawing Surfer, of course, inferior to special graphic packets, because It is created as cATOgraphic software, not just a graphic

Start the Surfer program and get acquainted with the logic of work in it.

Surfer project file (Expansion * .srf) consists of a set of objects placed on printed sheet (By default, A4 format, its contours are indicated in the Surfer window). Objects can be highlighted with the mouse and perform operations with them like ordinary actions in the vector graphics program (scaling, moving, changing properties). Separate objects may be included in groups. Any card is necessarily entered into a group of type MAPwhich is assigned a coordinate network, common to all objects of this group.

Please note: if you just draw graphic object (line, rectangle, etc.) it will be placed on the printed sheet, but will not have binding to coordinates cards, even if it is drawn over it, because will not be tied to geographic coordinates. If you need to have a line or polygon attached to the coordinates, you need to create an object-circuit ("stroke") using the command Base Map. And then add it to the MAP group of the corresponding card.

IN left upper corner Surfer windows Located Manager facilities which allows you to observe the order of outputting objects on the screen and when printing (in the manager from top to bottom, objects follow as layers, respectively, blocking each other while outputting to the screen or printed list).

To properly work with the project, you must not forget to do the following:

a) Each object (which by default receives an abstract name of the type "line" or "map") immediately after creating a clear name, pushing the name of the mouse, for example, the "circuit of works 2013" - for the territory of the territory, "LGCU" - for the card According to logarithms of content, etc. Otherwise, I assure you, the number of objects imperceptibly will become so huge for you, and the names of the same type of objects will be the same that you are fully confused in the project.

b) Place layers In the correct order - those objects that should be displayed on the screen or printed on top of others, drop mouse Top in the list of object manager.

in) Each new mapeven if it is built on a common database, added to the project as independent objectEven if it gets when creating one and the same place on a sheet. Mouse these maps can be moved and arrange near. Sometimes it is necessary - for example, to close the cards in the isolated, say, on copper and zink. But if you want to combine cards - for example, on top of the card in the insulatory, the points of the fact cards, these cards must be reduced into one, dragging any of them to the group Map Where is the second card. In this group Map the first card (if it did not turn on anything else) will disappear, but a new group Map It will contain two cards as two adjacent layers. You can drag the object with the mouse when it is displayed next to it horizontal arrow pointer. At this moment you can release the mouse and the object "nearers" to the place where the arrow pointed. If you drag the object where it is impossible, the pointer will acquire the type of prohibitive road sign.

d) if the viewing interferes with unnecessary objects (or you do not want to print them), turn off the tick To the left of the name of the object, and it will disappear. So it is convenient to change to view the map in the isolated parameters for different parameters, because just one can output.

IN left lower corner Surfer windows Located Object Property Manager if some object is in currently active, i.e. Highlighted with mouse. The properties manager combines all parameters of the object on tabs and groups, which can be changed from geographic binding coordinates and ending with color, texture of lines, etc. In addition to the manager, some properties can be edited using control panels POSITION / SIZE. (Location on a sheet relative to the left upper corner of the printed sheet, height and width of the object).

Map tools for creating, modifying and analyzing surfaces are collected in the menu Grid. . Its commands contain the entire range of tools from the e-table editor to mathematical modules for creating and processing grid files ("grids" - * .grd format files). These features and most important features are reviewed in the chapter "Building a grid file" and "Choosing a mathematical model, ciging and a varioogram".

The main component of Surfer is set of cartographic tools. Commands to display prepared surfaces ("Grids"). The main of them are collected in the menu Map - New and partially duplicated in the toolbar Map.

If necessary, SURFER allows you to start the built-in e-table editor (menu Grid. - Data.). Using this command, you can open an Excel file or other spreadsheet and hyphenation data in the "native" for the Surfer * .dat format, which is actually a text file with columns separators. Of course, the built-in editor does not go into any comparison with the possibilities of the "branded" software for managing spreadsheets, such as Microsoft Excel. , OpenOffice Calc. etc., so I do not recommend using. Working with DAT files makes sense only in extreme cases or if the source data tables are already prepared in advance in DAT format. In the usual situation, the user works with data created in the electronic table of * .xls format, which is directly processed by all Surfer modules to build surfaces and maps.

We mention important toolbars.

Toolbar VIEW. (View) Contains the zoom buttons with which it is convenient for one click to change the size of the viewing area, as well as scaling and move objects.

Toolbar Map (Map) Contains all the main key creation buttons that speed up the work, because Get rid of the need to choose in the menu Map - New.

For drawing there are graphic tools collected on the panel Drawing. (Drawing): buttons for entering text, polygon, broken line, symbol, standard figures (rectangle, rectangle with rounded corners, Ellipse), smooth curve (i.e., the Bezier-based curve, based on the nodal points) and the tool for editing nodal points (similar to the same tool in Corel Draw and a similar vector graphic software). General view of all panels Dan in the picture at the end of the page.

Do not forget also set up unit of measure: Choose centimeters instead of inches by default (menu Tools. - Options.further section Environment - Drawing., Field Page Units.).

And finally, the most important thing: the form of a summary card. It is no secret that the Surfer program is far from all, therefore, the final form of the card must comply with the generally accepted format. In our case optimal option There will be an export of the card to the raster schedule file of the JPEG format. Before exporting, you need to check the sighted view of the project, make sure that the layers are correct, disconnect unnecessary layers in the object manager, do not forget to write all the necessary headers and comments. After that, we allocate all objects that group them (this is not necessarily, but it is not harmful to protect against accidental shifts of objects relative to each other). Export is carried out through the menu File - ExportBy pressing Ctrl + E. Or with a special toolbar button. By default, Surfer offers exports to * .BLN format, change it to * .jpg. In the next window, we can edit the resolution of the final picture (by default 300 dpi, 200 DPI is often suitable, which saves the file size). In the Export Options window there is a tab Jpeg Options.where you can choose the desired compression ratio (do not get carried away and do not overcover the drawing, be sure to check the results of the result on the example of the smallest inscriptions and icons). That's all!